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Homosexuality may refer to:

• A sexual orientation characterized by aesthetic attraction, romantic love, and sexual desire exclusively or almost exclusively for members of the same sex or gender identity.
• Sexual relations with another of the same sex or gender regardless of sexual orientation or self-identification.
• A sexual identity or self-identification, which may or may not imply exclusively homosexual behavior or attraction.

Homosexuality is usually contrasted with heterosexuality and bisexuality. See sexual orientation
Anthropologists divide homosexuality into three major types: egalitarian, gender-structured, and age-structured, of which one would generally be privileged over the others in a given society at a given time. See Forms below.

As there could be different biological, historical and psycho-social components to sex and gender, no single label or description will fit all individuals. See discussions on sex and gender at sex and Homosexuality and transgender.

Etymology

Main article: Terminology of homosexuality

The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" and the Latin root sex- meaning "sex."

The first known appearance of the term homosexual in print is found in an anonymously published 1869 German pamphlet written by the Hungarian Karl-Maria Kertbeny.

Usage and related terms

See Terminology of homosexuality for main article.

The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe persons as well as their sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification. However, since homosexual places emphasis on sexuality, it is to be avoided when not describing such. Some people also feel the term is too clinical and thus somewhat dehumanising. Thus, when referring to a person who takes part in homosexual behavior (as opposed to the actual behavior), gay man or lesbian are generally preferred. (Some same-sex oriented persons actually prefer the term homosexual to gay, seeing the former as describing a sexual orientation and the latter as describing a cultural or socio-political group with which they do not identify .)

The term gay may refer to all homosexual people, or only to homosexual men, which is why gay man may be preferred. Lesbian refers to homosexual women.

Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual.

Derogatory terms include fag or faggot, which generally refer to gay men; poofter, and mincer used mostly in the United Kingdom; queer, generally inclusive of anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual, but also reclaimed as affirming by many gays and academics; Gay and homo, common terms of abuse among adolescents; and dyke, which refers to lesbians. See Homophobia

Given how confusing and overloaded various terms can be, when specificity is important, new terms are starting to be pressed into service. For example, Men who have sex with men, or MSM for short, is sometimes used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual behavior (regardless of sexual orientation or self-identification). Non-straight is another attempt at neutrality that is gaining currency.

Anthropology

Forms

A number of researchers into the social construction of same-sex love and sexuality have suggested that the concept of homosexuality would best be rendered as "homosexualities." They point out that same-sex relations have been and continue to be constructed in widely disparate ways by different societies. These variations are grouped by anthropologist Stephen O. Murray into three different categories:

• Egalitarian, exemplified by modern forms of relationship between partners of similar age and gender. See Sexual minority cultures
• Gender structured, exemplified by traditional relations between men in the Mediterranean basin, the Middle East and Central and South Asia, as well as shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. See Homosexuality and Islam, Two-Spirit and Hijra
• Age structured, exemplified by the erotic apprenticeship engaged in by novice samurai with the more experienced warriors, southern Chinese boy-marriage rites and Classical Greek practices See Shudo, Homosexuality in China, and Pederasty

Though in any society one particular form of homosexuality usually predominates, other forms are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models, in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (though to some extent "in the closet") with the institution of pederasty; and a fascination with adolescent youths continues to be a part of modern queer culture, just as a fascination with adolescent girls continues to concentrate the minds of straight men.

Incidence

Main article: Demographics of sexual orientation.

Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably. They are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of homosexuality, and by fluctuations over time and according to location.

Recent estimates in Western countries, where egalitarian relationships predominate, range from 1% to 10%, confined to a self-identified subculture. See Sexual minority cultures

In North Africa, the Middle East and Central Asia, where gender- and age-structured relationships are the rule, male homosexual practices are reported to be widespread, engaged in by individuals most of whom do not regard themselves as homosexual. See Homosexuality and Islam

Historically, in areas where same-sex relationships were integrated in the culture, such as Ancient Greece, parts of Melanesia, Renaissance Florence, and pre-modern Japan, homosexual relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population. See Pederasty

See Anthropological classification of homosexuality.

Biology

Bisexual continuum

Main articles: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male & Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.

Many studies, most notably the Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and the Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey (which have questionable clinical veracity (see:Wallin, Paul. "An Appraisal of Some Methodological Aspects of the Kinsey Report" in American Sociological Review, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Apr., 1949), pgs. 197-210)) have found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences or sensations and are bisexual. Only a minority of people were found (5–10%) to be exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, an even smaller minority of people appear to have had equal sexual experiences with both genders indicating an attraction scale or continuum. Other studies have suggested these reports exaggerated the occurrence of bisexuality and homosexuality in human populations. However, his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and animal kingdoms as well as biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations. It is unclear, however, if these structural brain differences are the cause of homosexuality or caused by homosexuality. Many argue that the discrepancies between public and private admissions regarding sexual orientation are due to negative societal attitudes regarding same-sex intercourse.

Genetics vs. Environment

Scientific research is ongoing into various hypotheses about what factors give rise to homosexual orientation or behavior. These include pre-natal hormonal factors and genetics. For social factors of choice see malleability below. There have been many arguments postulating that homosexuality is a genetic trait and, conversly there have been many arguments postulating that homosexuality cannot be genetic and must be a social construct. Below are some of those arguments.

"Reduced Gene Pool"

The Argument of Reduced Gene Pool states that since homosexuality is a behavior that does not promote reproduction, it is self destructive and cannot be genetic. Practically all animal species (including humans) continue to live and thrive generation after generation because of reproduction between a male and a female of the species. Assuming increased homosexual behavior would lead to decreased heterosexual behavior and thus fewer offspring, the likelihood of homosexuals passing on their theoretical genes is also decreased.

"Either Or"

The Argument of Either Or states that humans have genetic directions to reproduce (meaning have sex with the opposite sex), and that if that genetic information was somehow damaged or turned off, it would not necessarily direct the human to be attracted to the same sex. It is irrational to say that humans are either heterosexual or homosexual. Since sex genes are there to promote reproduction, they may be turned off altogether as in an asexual person, but would not attract the person to the same sex arbitrarily.

Malleability

Main articles: Causes of sexual orientation & Homosexuality & Medical Science

Considerable debate continues over what determines a person's sexual orientation with regard to genetic vs. hormonal factors. A much smaller dialogue remains on whether that orientation is discretionary. Accordingly to the widely accepted views of Kinsey's sexual continuum most agree that only minorities of humans are "truly" homosexual or heterosexual and that the majority are bisexual. The presently held mainstream view (despite the lack of clinical evidence) is that regardless of your specific sexual orientation it cannot be changed and those who have had "success" are more appropriately bisexual.

"Permanent"

The great majority of workers in medicine and the sciences, as well as LGB organizations, claim that sexual orientation is innate, fixed and unchangeable, and that it is impossible to change homosexuality into heterosexuality, or vice-versa. They hold that the innate factors that in the majority of cases direct male sexual arousal to females (and vice-versa), in the case of the LGB minority direct arousal toward those of the same gender.

To support this argument, they point to the many reports of both straight and LGB-identified individuals who claim having discovered their orientation at an early age (often in pre-adolescence). In the case of queer youth, many report initial distress in response to this realization. Their claims are consistent with statistics showing that LGB-identified youth are several times more likely than non-gay youth to attempt suicide.

Some scientific studies suggest gay men's anatomical brain structure is similar to that of heterosexual women and different from their heterosexual male counterparts. Other studies such as the March 2000 Breedlove finger length report and the July 2000 University of Texas study of neurological auditory response suggest that while lesbians show characteristics intermediate between heterosexual men and women, gay men are "hyper-masculinized". Some researchers have found that if one of a set of identical twins self-identifies as a gay man or lesbian, the chance of the other identifying as gay is increased to 50%, although other researchers' twin studies have found widely differing percentages.

Attempts to modify sexual orientation (known as "conversion therapies" and so far targeted only at LGB-identified individuals) have been condemned by numerous professional organizations in the scientific field for causing depression (sometimes leading to suicide) and being of little value. In 2001 Dr. Robert Spitzer, professor of psychiatry at Columbia University announced a study indicating that "reparative" therapy has a failure rate on the order of 99.98%. Indeed, the largest "reparative" therapy organization, a ministry called Exodus International, was started by two formerly homosexual men who several years later ended up leaving the ministry, denouncing it, and living as a homosexual couple themselves. The American Psychological Association in 1997 passed a resolution declaring therapists in these groups engaged in such conversion therapies to be following unethical and unhealthy practices.

The American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, Interfaith Alliance Foundation, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, and National Education Association developed and endorsed the following statement in 1999:

"The most important fact about 'reparative therapy,' also sometimes known as 'conversion therapy,' is that it is based on an understanding of homosexuality that has been rejected by all the major health and mental health professions. , together representing more than 477,000 health and mental health professionals, have all taken the position that homosexuality is not a mental disorder and thus there is no need for a 'cure.' ...health and mental health professional organizations do not support efforts to change young people's sexual orientation through 'reparative therapy' and have raised serious concerns about its potential to do harm."

"Changeable"

Various psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists including Sigmund Freud, Margaret Mead, and Michael Foucault have held that neither exclusive heterosexuality nor exclusive homosexuality are innate and only exist due to the effects of outside societal or developmental influences on the individual. In the same vein, writer Gore Vidal once remarked that "there is no such thing as a homosexual or heterosexual person. There are only homo- or heterosexual acts. Most people are a mixture of impulses if not practices, and what anyone does with a willing partner is of no social or cosmic significance". The lesbian-feminist movement has historically held the position that sexual orientation is socially and psychologically created and openly encouraged women to choose lesbianism over "compulsory heterosexuality" (as Adrienne Rich called it in her 1980 essay "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existence") for the sake of women's liberation.

Conservative religious congregations maintain that being gay is a self-indulgent transgressive choice, like being a fast driver, and state it is learned behavior. Thus it is their position that all homosexuality is of a preferential nature. Some of the organizations that believe homosexuality is a choice and a violation of their religious creeds offer "conversion therapies" for lesbians and gay men in an attempt to change their sexual orientation. Some groups, most notably the Roman Catholic Church, take an ambiguous position on whether homosexual orientation is a free choice, explaining that the psychological basis behind it is not well understood. It is viewed as a "cross that must be borne", and homosexual individuals are expected to practice chastity.

Utilizing a secular approach, the American National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality, and some non-Western organizations, also maintain that "conversion therapy" can change sexual orientation. They claim that sexual orientation is not genetic, that it is changeable, and to regard sexual orientation as permanent is incorrect. The implications of this view on the construction of heterosexuality have not been fully explored.

Apart from the issue of the changeability of one's basic orientation, the manifestation of one's sexual orientation seems to be liable to a great amount of variability. Thus it is common for homosexual individuals in hetero-normative societies to love, marry, and have children with individuals of the opposite sex, a practice done for social reasons in intolerant environments, as a cover for one's orientation (such relationships are known as "beards.") The opposite situation seems to obtain in homo-normative societies, where men whose primary attraction may be to the opposite sex nonetheless engage in—and enjoy—the homosexual practices prescribed by their respective culture. Both of these adaptations are forms of situational sexual behavior.

Homosexuality in animals

Main article: Homosexuality in animals

Homosexuality among animals may refer only to an apparent sexual behavior within the same sex, since the other two meanings are stated in terms of human traits. Homosexual behavior is common in the Animal Kingdom, especially in species closer to humans on the evolutionary scale, such as the great apes. Some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance. However others reject that theory citing homosexuality in species that mate for life and female homosexuality.

• Male penguin couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and use a stone to replace sitting on an egg in the nest. In 2004, the Central Park Zoo in the United States replaced one male couple's stone with a fertile egg which the couple then raised as their own offspring . A German zoo has also reported homosexuality among its penguins. This has also been reported at Kelly Tarlton's Aquarium in Auckland, New Zealand.

• Courtship, mounting, and full anal penetration between bulls is common among American bison. The Mandan nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season." Also, mounting is common among cows.

• Homosexuality in male sheep (found in 6–10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity. A study reported in endocrinology concluded that biological factors are in play; this study replicated similar findings in humans. It shows that approximately 10% of males are homosexual and that the brains of homosexual males are different. .

Sociology

Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships, reflected in the attitude of the state and the church, have varied over the centuries, from requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, to proscribing it under penalty of death. See Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered

Modern law

Main articles: Homosexuality laws of the world & Same-sex Marriage

The relationship between the moral condemnation of the gay community and its legal status is complicated. For instance, in England buggery was a crime under medieval canon law because it was banned by the Church. However, prosecutions for this offence died out. Sexual activity between those of the same sex was formally banned by Parliament in the 19th century as one of a range of sexual offences, alongside sex with under-age girls, as part of an expression of a general moral outrage related to events of that time.

State-sponsored violence against gay men and lesbians occurs largely throughout those cultures under the sway of the Christian, Judaic and (to a lesser extent) Islamic religions. One recent egregious example of genocide by a genetically based (rather than religiously-based) doctrine, was the attempted extermination of gays during the Holocaust, where the Nazis viewed same-sex attraction as a sign of eugenic moral weakness rather than as a sin.

In pre-industrial western societies same-gender sex was generally accepted by the lower classes and the upper class, less so among the bourgeoisie, though most professed to consider it immoral. However, with the rise of urbanisation and the nuclear family, same-gender sex became less tolerated and even outlawed in some cases.

By the 19th Century most areas adopting the Code Napoleon (French-based civil law) had no specific ban on same-gender sex, while many areas with British-based Common Law systems had anti-sodomy statutes and executed gay men and lesbians as late as the end of the 1800's.

Beginning in the 20th century, gay rights movements, as part of the broader civil rights movements, in concert with the development of the academic treatment of sexuality in queer studies, have led to changes in social acceptance and in the media portrayal of the gay community.

The legalization and legal equality of same-gender sex, together with legal status for same-sex marriage and non-gender-specific civil unions are major goals of the gay rights movement to protect families of gay couples.

In recent years a number of jurisdictions have relaxed or eliminated laws criminalizing same-sex sexual activity, including sodomy laws and laws preventing gay citizens from serving in their country's armed forces.

In Bulgaria gay sex between adults (over 18) was legalized in 1951, in Hungary and Czechoslovakia - in 1961. In England and Wales, gay sex was legalized in 1967, for consenting males aged over 21. Scotland followed in 1980, and Northern Ireland in 1982. The age of consent was lowered in 1994 from 21 to 18, and again in 2000 to 16 in mainland Britain and 17 in Northern Ireland. This last change gave it equal treatment with the heterosexual age of consent. However, not until 2003 were the earlier offences of buggery and gross indecency abolished so that gay sex was treated in the same way as heterosexual sex (previously it was illegal for gay sex to involve more than two people, or for anyone to watch).

The European Parliament of the European Union, which must approve applications for membership, stated in 1998 that it would not allow countries that violated the rights of lesbians and gay men to enter.

In the United States, on June 26, 2003 the landmark U.S. Supreme Court verdict Lawrence v. Texas overturned all remaining sodomy laws in the United States. The court exclaimed:

• "A law branding one class of persons as criminal solely based on the State's moral disapproval of that class and the conduct associated with that class runs contrary to the values of the Constitution and the Equal Protection Clause, under any standard of review."

In China no specific law has targeted any form of gay behavior, but gay men are often convicted of being "rascals," which can lead to a jail sentence or to re-education.

In Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, South Korea, Thailand and Kampuchea there are no laws against same-sex sexual activity.

Homosexual acts remain illegal in Singapore (see Homosexuality in Singapore and Singapore gay movement), Malaysia, Myanmar and the Indian subcontinent as a legacy of Victorian British influence in these countries.

Understudied phenomenon

Despite the emollience of attitudes towards homosexuality, and acceptance of it in some societies in psychology, it is considered an 'understudied relationship'. In his book, Understudied Relationships, social psychologist S.W. Duck found that most mainstream research is predisposed towards studying only heterosexuality, in terms of relationships in contemporary Western cultures, implicating that same-sex relationships are neglected and ignored by the majority of psychologists. More research since the 1990s has focused on homosexual relationships, rather than just traditional heterosexual relationships.

Political aspects

Scapegoating

Homosexuality has at times been used as a scapegoat by governments facing problems. Some examples would be Nazi Germany’s Holocaust of gay men based on the understanding that they were a threat to masculinity as well as contaminating the Aryan Race with a “gay” gene. Another is the burning of 6,000 books of homoerotic poetry of 8th c. Persian-Arab poet Abu Nuwas by the Egyptian Ministry of Culture in January 2001, to placate Islamic fundamentalists.

Modern Capitalism

Capitalism with its business structures having a great degree of autonomy from a government have often been at the forefront in treating gay men and women equally. The level of equal parity is much more common in business structures than governments. As of 2005 approximately 45% of companies within the Fortune 500 offered domestic partner benefits and nine of the top ten companies include sexual orientation in their non-discrimination policies.

Military

Main article: Homosexuality and the military

Homosexuality since ancient times has been documented to be more common in militaries with their strict sex-separation contrasted to society at large. Official attitudes towards this form of sexuality have varied, reflecting their culture’s views. Ancient Greece among others, as well as pre-modern Japan’s military traditions openly encouraged them as a form of male bonding. Many modern countries (such as the United Kingdom) welcome homosexuals in the armed services. Others, such as the United States purge them from the force in the belief that they are a threat. This negative attitude was common in the European Middle Ages when the Medieval Templars, a prominent Christian brotherhood of knights during the Crusades was destroyed on accusations of homosexuality.

The Scouts, a group of youth organizations, often emulate the attitude of their home country's military. Thus the Boy Scouts in the US reject gay members, while the Scout Association in the UK welcomes them both as members and as leaders.

Militaries have been known to use sexuality in abusive manners such as rape, frequently based on sexist variant of homophobia. Romans who viewed masculinity based on the penetrative sexual position regardless of the sex of the passive partner used it as a form of dominance, including a means to “conquer” an enemy. T. E. Lawrence, during World War I, claimed to have been raped in a homosexual context by his Ottoman captors.

Religion

Main article: Religion and homosexuality

Religion has played a significant role in forming a culture’s views towards homosexuality. Historically the negative perceptions have been limited to the Abrahamic religions. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have commonly regarded homosexuality as sacred or neutral. In the wake of colonialism and imperialism undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some non-Abrahamic religious groups have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards homosexuality. For example, when India became part of the British Empire sodomy laws were introduced; while there was no basis for them in Hindu faith, this led to persecution of their society and religion. India still retains portions of these laws due to this past foreign influence as of 2005. This experience was also repeated by other Abrahamic religious nations upon their acquisitions throughout Africa, Asia and the Americas.

Atheists, Agnostics and Secularists

In societies where a majority religion is opposed to homosexuality, advocates for the rights of non-believers and gay-rights advocates become natural allies on certain political and cultural issues. However, being atheist, agnostic or secularist does not necessarily imply support for gay rights or approval of homosexuality. Various non-believers disapprove of homosexuality for various cultural, personal, and other non-religious reasons, and secular states, such as the countries of the Communist bloc, can at the same time be antagonistic to homosexuality.

Religious people who disagree with the condemnation of sodomy by their religious institution tend to leave their faith in greater numbers than those who agree with it (and thus are more likely to become non-believers, though many simply move to sects which approve of same-sex couples). But as with many religious issues, many dissidents, including lesbian and gay people themselves, maintain their religious affiliation and practice despite their disagreements.

Abrahamic

The world's three major Abrahamic religions, Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, have historically been the primary sources condemning homosexuality in the world. The first recorded law against homosexuality is found in Leviticus, and it prescribes the death penalty for homosexual acts between men. Today some major denominations within these religions have accepted homosexuality, arguing that it was originally intended as a means of distinguishing between Judaism and pagan faiths, and is thus no longer relevant.

Christianity

Main articles: Homosexuality and Christianity: History and Homosexuality and Christianity

The attitude of Early Christians toward homosexuality has been much debated. One side has cited denunciations of sodomy in the writings of the era, such as in the Didache and in the writings of Saint Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, Eusebius, St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom, St. Augustine, and in doctrinal sources such as the "Apostolic Constitutions" - for example, Eusebius of Caesarea's statement which condemns "the union of women with women and men with men". Others claim that passages have been mistranslated or they do not refer to homosexuality. Some Christians maintain that the Bible, principally in Leviticus 18 and Romans 1, denounces homosexual activity as a sin, in the eyes of God an "abomination" — a term used to describe a wide range of offenses, from incest and bestiality (sex with animals) to the eating of prohibited foods.

Among the prominent Christian figures known to have had same-sex relationships, Richard I of England had a relationship with King Philip II of France, Ralph Archbishop of Tours had his lover John installed as bishop of Orleans with agreement of both the King of France and Pope Urban II, and a number of popes and cardinals, especially during the Renaissance, also shared the popular tastes for handsome youths, so prevalent at the time in northern Italy.

Other Christians of the time were critical of homosexuality. St. Thomas Aquinas denounced sodomy as second only to bestiality (sex with animals) as the worst of all sexual sins, and St. Hildegard's book "Scivias", which was officially approved by Pope Eugenius III, related visions in which same-sex relations are condemned as "perverted forms".

Islam

Main articles: Homosexuality and Islam and Pederasty

Islamic teachings (in the hadith tradition) presume same-sex attraction, extoll abstention and (in the Qur'an) condemn consummation. In concordance with those creeds, in Islamic countries, male desire for attractive youths is widely expected and condoned as a human characteristic. However, it is thought that restraint from either acting on, or revealing, this desire is rewarded with an afterlife in paradise, where one is attended by perpetually young virgin lovers, women and men, houri and ghilman. (Al-Waqia 56.37, Qur’an) Homosexual intercourse itself has been interpreted to be a form of lust and a violation of the Qur'an. Thus, while homosexuality as an attraction is not against the Sharia (Islamic law, which governs the physical actions, rather than the inner thoughts and feelings), the physical action of same-sex intercourse is punishable under the Sharia.

Same-sex relations between adult males are segregated in a manner analogous to the segregation between the sexes. Thus, the passive role is generally taken on by an underclass of males, often transvestite or transgender who routinely would be entertainers by profession and who would be both despised for their submissive sexual role and admired for their skills. In earlier years these would have had their start through the traditional baccha or kocek roles. The active role is played by men who do not self-identify as homosexual, who typically conform to societal expectation to marry and have children and view their homosexual adventures as further confirmation of their masculinity. While this construction reflects the way Muslim men generally represent the culture to themselves, actual practices may vary a great deal.

The discourse on homosexuality in Islam is primarily concerned with activities between men. Relations between women, if at all problematized, are treated akin to adultery, and al-Tabari records an execution of a harem couple under caliph al-Hadi.

Historically, and with exceptions, punishment for male same-sex relations has been less severe compared to its Abrahamic counterparts: Judaism and Christianity. The Qur'an states that if a person commits the sin they can repent and save their life. Early Islamic cultures, especially ones where homosexuality was entrenched into their culture such as the Babylonians, Egyptians, Canaanites and as some claim, by exposure to Hellenistic culture, were renowned for their lenient attitudes towards homosexuality. They reconciled their new religion using a hadith, a collection of quotations ascribed to Muhammad, the founder of Islam "He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr". However, later hadiths are harsher: "When a man mounts another man, the throne of God shakes... Kill the one that is doing it and also kill the one that it is being done to." Both ancient and modern fundamentalists have interpreted these injunctions literally, with resulting loss of life.

The result is a religion that allows love between those of the same gender as long as they do not have sexual intercourse. Ibn Hazm, Ibn Daud, Al-Mutamid, Abu Nuwas, and many others used this edict to write extensively and openly of love between men while proclaiming to be chaste. Furthermore, in order for the transgression to be proven, at least four men or eight women must bear witness against the accused, thus making it very difficult to persecute those who do not remain celibate in the privacy of their homes.

The teachings of Islam have themselves been used to justify love and sexual expression between males. In particular, those who argue for the validity of male same-sex love point out that Allah has repeatedly indicated that the male is worth twice as much as the female, as reflected in matters of intrinsic worth, inheritance, and bearing witness (Qur'an, iv. 38; Qur'an, ii. 282; Qur'an, iv. 175), and thus, by a process of induction, they must be worthier objects of desire as well. Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage

Judaism

Main article: Homosexuality and Judaism

The historically prevalent view in Jewish law has been that homosexual intercourse by men and women was sinful, arguing that it was forbidden by the Torah. For men this position is based on an interpretation of Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13, that homosexual intercourse between men is considered on the same level as idolatry, requiring death, and for women it is based on Leviticus 18:2-3, where the Israelites are commanded not to follow the ways of the Egyptians or Canaanites. However, since the late twentieth century this has been a subject of contention between various Jewish groups, and has led to both debate and division among modern Jews.

Reform Judaism argues that homosexuality is a natural attraction, and that the prohibition in the Torah was addressing pagan religious rituals, specifically Egyptian and Canaanite fertility cults and temple prostitution. The official position of Conservative Judaism, formulated in 1992, is that homosexual intercourse is sinful, and the movement does not ordain homosexuals as rabbis or cantors, but insists that homosexual Jews should be welcomed within the movement. In 2003 the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards of the Rabbinical Assembly recognized divisions within the movement, and promised to reevaluate the position in the near future. Orthodox Judaism views homosexuality as sinful, but halakhic decisors have differed on the causes (and thus severity) of the sin, and on how one should interact with gay Jews. Currently same-sex marriages are forbidden in Orthodox and Conservative Judaism, but Reform and Reconstructionist Judaism allow them.

Buddhism

Main article: Homosexuality and Buddhism

Buddhism is traditionally neutral in its treatment of homosexuality, though different schools hold different attitudes, depending largely on whether they train the mind by reducing desires or by using the energy of desire to effect awakening experiences. It is common to see condemnation of homosexuality by Buddhists in societies within Asia largely influenced by Abrahamic religions. However, this is a recent development and has no scriptural basis. Prior to colonization , homosexuality was no less privileged than other forms of love. In Japan, the practice was "invented" by the Bodhisattva Manjusri of wisdom and the sage Kukai, while in China it is attributed to the Yellow Emperor, the father of China. Indian, Tibetan, Chinese, Southeast Asian and Japanese cultures, where Buddhism was or remains one of the chief religions, have been historically unconcerned with the gender of sexual activity or the object of desire.

Hinduism

Main article: Homosexuality and Hinduism

The Indian Kama Sutra written in the third century c. e. contains passages describing hijras performing oral sex to men with tips to maximize pleasure. Prior to British colonization of India hijras were not the only homosexual activity, many engaged in a form of pederasty which was openly practiced by Muslims and Sikhs in the north while being overlooked in the south by Hindus. The terms gand-mara (anus beater), gando (ass-taker) and ganga ("anuser") were coined during this time period. During British control Hinduism became markedly antagonistic to homosexuality.

In Hinduism many divinities are androgynous with some changing sex to participate in homoerotic behavior.

Paganism

Main articles: Pederasty, Mythology of same-sex love

In Greco-Roman religion same-sex love was integrated in sacred texts and rituals, understandable since most followers were open to romantic engagements with either sex. Certain surviving myths depict homosexual bonds (see History), sanctified by divinities modeling such relationships. See Zeus and Ganymede as an example.

The Sumerian religion also held homosexuality sacred. It also was incorporated into various New World religions, such as the Aztec. It is thought to have been common in shamanic practice.

Divinities who engaged in same-sex love

Main article: Mythology of same-sex love

Gilgamesh, Enkidu, Poseidon, Pelops, Zeus, Ganymede, Laius, Chrysippus, Iphis, Ianthe, Heracles, Iolaus, Hylas, Abderus, Apollo, Orpheus, Hyacinthus, Cyparisus, Pan, Daphnis, Achilles, Patroclus, Narcissus, Ameinias, Xochipilli

Polemic

Main article: Anti-gay slogan

Same-sex love practices have been the subject of a continuing debate dating back at least to Classical Greece. In antiquity, and in countries not under the sway of Abrahamic beliefs, the debates usually took the form of debating which love is best, the love of women or the love of boys, unlike more recent discussions which frame the question in terms of "right" and "wrong."

Each camp has made use of a relatively circumscribed arsenal of arguments, some of which have not changed greatly over the past two and a half thousand years. Recent advances in sociological studies and other discourse such as queer theory have brought a measure of scientific rigor to what had been mostly a philosophical debate.

Con

• "Same-sex love is against nature" This charge dates back to Classical Greece, where it was first articulated by Plato in his "Laws."
• "It is condemned by God." Expressed by early Christian exegetes (claimed to be the moral of the Sodom and Gomorrah story), and by Muhammad in the Qur'an.
• "It leads to plagues and natural disasters." Advanced by Christian authorities from late Antiquity through the Renaissance.
• "It is abuse of the young." Encountered in "Erotes," a dialogue of the early Christian era by "Lucian."
• "It is a dissipation of one's vital force." Also in Lucian.

Pro

• "It is commonplace in nature." Based on zoologists' observations of many different species (see Bagemihl in References).
• "Suppressing it alters the balance of nature." A Melanesian belief documented by Bagemihl.
• "It foments close friendships and independent thinking." Also in Lucian
• "The male form is superior to the female form." Medieval Arabic text included in the Arabian Nights (The Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage).

History

Main articles: History of sexuality & History of the Gay Community

Sexual customs vary greatly over time, and those shifts, as well as the orientation of particular pre-modern figures are the subject of ongoing study. However, modern Western gay culture as it is currently understood is largely a product of 19th century psychology as well as the years of post-Stonewall gay liberation. It is generally not applicable as a standard when investigating same-gender sex and people's views in past ages.

It may be accepted, for example, that the sex lives of historical figures such as Alexander the Great, Hadrian, Virgil, Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Plato, Christopher Marlowe (who coined the term 'quean') and William Shakespeare included or were centred upon relationships with people of their own gender. Terms such as "gay" or "bisexual" might be applied to them in that sense. But many regard this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a modern social construction of sexuality sub-culture that is foreign to their times. For example, their societies might have focused upon the sexual role one took in these encounters, namely active, passive, both, or neither, as a key social marker. This particular system of designation is currently the norm in many areas of Latin America.

It could be noted, on the other hand, that when evidence that a particular historical figure's sexuality pointed exclusively toward an attraction to people of an opposite gender describing them as having a heterosexual orientation rarely evokes such controversy. This tendency among Western historians, to view heterosexuality as an acceptable norm while regarding arguments that a particular historical figure may have had been gay controversial or requiring more evidence than a claim of opposite-sex attraction might warrant, is often attributed to homophobia on the part of historians and is referred to within queer studies as heteronormativity.

Africa

Though denied or ignored by early explorers, homosexual expression in native Africa was widespread and common, and took a variety of forms. Representative examples:

Anthropologists Murray and Roscoe report that women in Lesotho traditionally have enaged in socially sanctioned and celebrated "long term, loving and erotic relationships" named motsoalle.

E. E. Evans-Pritchard reported that Azande warriors (in the northern Congo) routinely married youths who functioned as temporary wives. The practice had died out in the early 20th century but was recounted to him by the elders.

Americas

In North American Native society, the most common form of same-sex sexuality seems to center around the figure of the two-spirit individual. Such persons seem to have been recognized by the majority of tribes, each of which had its particular term for the role. Typically the two-spirit individual was recognized early in life, was given a choice by the parents to follow the path, and if the child accepted the role then it was raised in the appropriate manner, learning the customs of the gender it had chosen. Two-spirit individuals were commonly shamans and were revered as having powers beyond those of ordinary shamans. Their sexual life would be with the ordinary tribe members of the opposite gender. Male two-spirit people were prized as wives because of their greater strength and ability to work. See Two-spirit

East Asia

In Asia same-sex love has been a central feature of everyday life since the dawn of history. Early western travelers were taken aback by its widespread acceptance and open display.

In China, known as the pleasures of the bitten peach, the cut sleeve, or The southern custom, same-sex relations have been recorded since at least 600 BCE. These euphemistic terms were used to describe behaviors, but not identities. The relationships were marked by differences in age and social position. However, the instances of same-sex affection and sexual interactions described in the Hong Lou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber, or Story of the Stone) seem as familiar to observers in the present as do equivalent stories of romances between heterosexuals during the same period. For more information see Homosexuality in China.

In Japan, the practice, variously known as shudo or nanshoku, terms influenced by Chinese literature, has been documented for over one thousand years and was an integral part of Buddhist monastic life and the samurai tradition. This same-sex love culture gave rise to strong traditions of painting and literature documenting and celebrating such relationships. For more information see Homosexuality in Japan.

Similarly, Thailand had no concept of homosexuality until the late 20th century. Kathoey or ladyboys have been a feature of Thai society for many centuries. They were men who dressed as women. They were generally accepted by society without much question, although a family was often disappointed if one of their sons became a Kathoey. The teachings of Buddhism, dominant in Thai society was accepting of a third gender designation.

Europe

The earliest western documents (in the form of literary works, art objects, as well as mythographic materials) concerning same-sex relationships are derived from Ancient Greece, where same-sex relationships were a social institution variously constructed over time and from one city to another. (See Pederasty) The practice, a system of relationships between an adult male and an adolescent coming of age, was often valued for its pedagogic benefits and as a means of population control, and occasionally blamed for causing disorder. Plato praised its benefits in his early writings, but in his late works proposed its prohibition, laying out a strategy which uncannily predicts the path by which same-sex love was eventually driven underground. (See Philosophy of pederasty)

The Roman emperor Theodosius decreed a law, on August 6th, 390, condemning passive homosexuals to be burned at the stake. Justinian, towards the end of his reign, expanded the proscription to the active partner as well (in 558) warning that such conduct can lead to the destruction of cities through the "wrath of God." Notwithstanding these regulations, taxes on homosexual boy brothels continued to be collected until the end of the reign of Anastasius in 581.

During the Renaissance, cities in northern Italy, Florence and Venice in particular, were renowned for their widespread practice of same-sex love, engaged in by a majority of the male population and constructed along the classical pattern of Greece and Rome (Ruggiero, 1985; Rocke, 1996). But even as the majority of the male population was engaging in same-sex relationships, the authorities, under the aegis of the Officers of the Night court, were prosecuting, fining and imprisoning a good portion of that population. The eclipse of this period of relative artistic and erotic freedom was precipitated by the rise to power of the moralizing monk Girolamo Savonarola. Throughout all of Europe, fierce conflicts, dating back to the early Middle Ages, raged between proponents and opponents of same sex love. In northern Europe the artistic discourse on sodomy was turned against its proponents by artists like Rembrandt who in his "Rape of Ganymede" no longer depicted Ganymede as a willing youth, but as a squalling baby attacked by a rapacious bird of prey.

Middle East and Central Asia

Among many Middle-Eastern Muslim cultures homosexual practices were widespread and public, and recent work in queer studies suggests that while their visibility has been much reduced, their frequency has not. The two most commonly documented forms were commercial sex with transgender males or males enacting transgender roles exemplified by the koceks and the bacchas, and Sufi spiritual practices in which the practitioner crossed over from the idealized chaste form of the practice to one in which the desire is consummated.

Around both forms a rich tradition of art and literature sprang up, constructing Middle Eastern homosexuality in ways analogous to the ancient tradition of male love in which Ganymede, cup-bearer to the gods, symbolized the ideal boyfriend. Muslim - often Sufi - poets in medieval Arab lands and in Persia wrote odes to the beautiful Christian wine boys who - they claimed - served them in the taverns and shared their beds at night. In many areas the practice survived into modern times (as documented by Richard Francis Burton, André Gide and many others).

In Central Asia, on the Silk Route, the two traditions of the east and the west met, and gave rise to a strong local culture of same-sex love. In the Turkic-speaking areas, one manifestation of this were the bacchá, adolescent or adolescent-seeming male entertainers and sex workers. In other areas male love continues to surface despite efforts to keep it quiet. After the American invasion of Afghanistan, Central Asian same-sex love customs in which adult men take on adolescent lovers, were widely reported.

Other forms are less well documented. It is reported that in the oasis of Siwa boy marriages were the norm until the middle of the twentieth century, a practice which was coupled with a minimum age for heterosexual marriage of forty for the men, a measure presumed to have been taken to avoid overpopulation. Finally, sexual relations between older and younger boys are said to be frequent in the Middle East as well as in the Maghreb.

The prevailing pattern of same-sex relationships in the temperate and sub-tropical zone stretching from Northern India to the Western Sahara is one in which the relationships were - and are - either gender-structured or age-structured, or both. In recent years, egalitarian relationships modelled on the western pattern have become more frequent, if still rare.

See Pederasty in Central Asia and the Middle East, Kocek, Baccha, Tellak

South Pacific

In many societies of Melanesia same-sex relationships are an integral part of the culture. In some tribes of Papua New Guinea, for example, it is considered a normal ritual responsibility for a boy to have a relationship as a part of his ascent into manhood. Many Melanesian societies, however, have become hostile towards same-sex relationships since the introduction of Christianity by European missionaries.

Modern Developments

In 1973, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Psychiatric Manual of Psychiatric Disorders (DSM) removed homosexuality as a mental disorder from the manual.

During the last few decades, in part due to their history of shared oppression, gays in the West have developed a shared culture, although not all gays participate in it, and many gay men and women specifically decline to do so. The various approaches to the question of what queer culture should be are exemplified by the gay pride and the gay shame movements. Gay pride aims at equality and social and economic integration. Opposition to this comes from the gay shame movement, which holds that being gay can lead to liberation from restrictive social constructs.

Shortly after World War II the gay community began to make advancements in civil rights throughout much of the Western World. With the advent of the AIDS outbreak, organizational structures of these groups became much more sophisticated. At the start of the 21st Century four countries had granted access to civil-marriages and many more countries; the majority of Europe had established similar legal arrangements. Gay men and women had risen to numerous posts of power within many governments that had only a few decades ago previously imprisoned or even in some cases exterminated them.

The overall trend of greater acceptance of gay men and women in the latter part of the 20th Century was not limited to secular institutions; it was also seen in many religious institutions. Reform Judaism, the largest branch of Judaism outside Israel had begun to facilitate religious weddings for gay adherents in their synagogues. The Anglican Communion, the world’s second largest Christian Church in terms of members had nearly fractured due to the Churches in the Western World ordaining gay clergy and blessing same-sex unions against the wishes of those in the developing world, where a morality first adopted in colonial times still predominates. (See Post-colonialism) Other Churches such as the Methodist Church had experienced trials of gay clergy who some claimed were a violation of religious principles resulting in mixed verdicts dependent on geography.

With the advent of the Internet, gay people find it easier to locate one another and organize. They can engage in cybersex while keeping their sexual orientation hidden or hide behind a facade such as Plushies, Yiff, and Furries.

Art and literature

Main article: Homoeroticism & Same-sex love (visual arts)

One of the primary social manifestations of same-sex love has been through the medium of literature and art. The aspects of these expressions range across the gamut of the main artistic disciplines. Homoerotic sensibilities are at the foundation of art in the west, to the extent that those roots can be traced back to the ancient Greeks. Homer’s Iliad – one of the foundations of the Greco-Roman faith – was regarded to contain a homosexual relationship by many of its contemporaries.

The European tradition was continued throughout the ages in the works of William Shakespeare, Michelangelo, and Leonardo da Vinci. In Arab populations it was present in figures such as Abu Nuwas. The Tale of Genji –called the “world’s first real novel”, fostered this tradition in Asian societies.

Icons such as Madonna and Elton John have followed this tradition in modern times. Presently the Japanese anime subgenre, yaoi, commonly features the theme. Artistic nudes have prominently displayed lesbianism. Playwrights have penned popular works such as Angels In America. These sentiments have been pervaded in many movies. A popular television series exploited these perceptions with Queer Eye For The Straight Guy equating gay men with the ancient Greek Muses.

See also

• List of gay-related topics
• List of famous gay, lesbian or bisexual composers
• List of famous gay, lesbian or bisexual people
• Sexual orientation
• Sexual orientation and science, including determinants and demographics of sexual orientation, other scientific studies, and medical opinions
• Gay-to-straight behavior modification
• Homosexuality and transgender
• LGBT history
• LGBT organizations
• LGBT civil rights
• Mythology of same-sex love
• Same-sex marriage
• Gay Rights around the world
• Sexual orientation and identity
• Sexual orientation and society, including moral and political debate and social attitudes
• LGBT issues and religion
• Lists of gay, lesbian and bisexual people
• Sexual minority cultures
• Gay and lesbian culture

External links

Background

• The Androphile Project - History, literature and art of other homosexual cultures
• Encyclopedia of gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender & queer culture
• Gay History & Literature (Rictor Norton)
• GLSEN: Gay, Lesbian, Straight Education Network
• Halsall's Gay History Page
• Kinsey and the Sexual Revolution - by Dr. Judith A. Reisman
• OHSU
• Sexual Minorities on Community College Campuses
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Same-sex Orientation
• The Breedlove Study
• The Sheep Study

Organizations active for gay rights

• Stonewall (UK) - gay lobby group in the UK
• Outrage (UK) - direct action gay political activists
• Human Rights Campaign
• Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation
• Lambda Legal Defense Fund
• NGLTF (National Gay & Lesbian Task Force) US Lobbying group
• Out In America
• People Like Us 3 -gay rights group in Singapore

Organizations that offer support to gay youth

• CampWEHO - message boards
• Mogenic - magazine consisting of various articles, as well as profiles and chat
• XY - magazine including articles, chat, and profiles

Organizations that offer support to lesbians and gay men

• American Psychological Association
• International Lesbian and Gay Association
• London Lesbian Gay Switchboard - the first in the world, started as East London Gay Switchboard in 1974.
• Soulforce, Inc. - interfaith movement representing GLBT people.
• Gay Men's Health Crisis - mostly information on HIV / AIDS prevention and management
• Gay Health - health-related information for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals

Organizations that offer support to lesbian and gay families

• Proud Parenting

Periodicals

• Advocate Magazine
• White Crane Magazine (gay wisdom & culture)
• Gay news, shopping, topics, local
• Gay news
• Unità (in Italian)
• ScotsGay Magazine From Scotland

References

• Christopher Bagley and Pierre Tremblay, (1998), "On the Prevalence of Homosexuality and Bisexuality, in a Random Community Survey of 750 Men Aged 18 to 27", Journal of Homosexuality, Volume 36, Number 2, pages 1-18.
• Lester G. Brown, Two Spirit People, 1997, Harrington Park Press, ISBN 1-56023-089-4
• Kenneth J. Dover, Greek Homosexuality, 1979, Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd., London, ISBN 0674362616 (o.p. hardcover), ISBN 0674362705 (pbk.).
• Bret Hinsch, Passions of the Cut Sleeve: The Male Homosexual Tradition in China, The University of California Press, 1990, ISBN 0-520-06720-7.
• Norman Roth. The care and feeding of gazelles - Medieval Arabic and Hebrew love poetry. IN: Lazar & Lacy. Poetics of Love in the Middle Ages. George Mason University Press, 1989.
• Arno Schmitt & Jehoeda Sofer (eds). Sexuality and Eroticism Among Males in Moslem Societies. Haworth Press, 1992.
• Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Male, 1948, ISBN 0721654452 (o.p.), ISBN 0253334128 (reprint).
• Alfred C. Kinsey, Sexual Behavior in the Human Female, 1953, ISBN 0721654509 (o.p.), ISBN 0671786156 (o.p. pbk.), ISBN 025333411X (reprint).
• LeVay, S., Science, 1991, 253, 1034?1037.
• Stephen O. Murray and Will Roscoe, Boy Wives and Female Husbands: Studies of African Homosexualities, 1998, ISBN 031221216X.
• Rocke, Michael, (1996), Forbidden Friendships: Homosexuality and male Culture in Renaissance Florence, ISBN 0-91-512292-5
• Ruggiero, Guido, (1985), The Boundaries of Eros, ISBN 0-91-505696-5
• Smith, T.W. (1991). Adult sexual behavior in 1989: Number of partners, frequency of intercourse and risk of AIDS. Family Planning Perspectives 23(3), 102-107.
• Bullough et al. (eds.) (1996). Handbook of Medieval Sexuality. Garland Publishing. ISBN 0815312873.
• Foucault, Michel (1990). The History of Sexuality vol. 1: An Introduction, p.43. Trans. Robert Hurley. New York: Vintage.
• Scientific Gay
• Genetics of homosexuality
• Brain structure in homosexual sheep
• Homosexuality and Transgender Surgery
• Fingerprints Study
• Androgen Link

• LGBT
• Sexual orientation and identity
• Sexual orientation
• Gender