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Vaishnavism is one of the principal traditions of Hinduism, and is distinguished from other schools by its primary worship of Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi (and their associated avatars) as the Supreme devas: God and Goddess. It is principally monotheistic in its philosophy, whilst also incorporating elements which could be described as being panentheistic and animistic (eg. worship of 'rocks' shalagram and 'plants' tulsi).
The doctrine of Vaishnavism is largely founded upon Vedic and Puranic texts such as Bhagavad Gita, Isha Upanishad, Vishnu and Bhagavata Puranas. The followers of Vaishnavism are referred to as 'Vaishnava(s)', sometimes 'Vaishnavites' in English. According to recent statistics Vaishnavas make up a majority of the total of all followers of Hinduism with the vast majority of these being in India. The Gaudiya Vaishnava branch of the tradition has significantly increased the awareness of Vaishnavism on an international basis since the 1960's, largely through the activities and geographical expansion of the Hare Krishna movement (ISKCON).
Historically, Vaishnavism tenets and practices are predominately in the mode of Bhakti and Bhakti Yoga - 'devotion' that may have developed in dialogue with the fervent devotional traditions of Islam precipitated by growing numbers of Moslems in Vaishnava enclaves during medieval India. Some Tantric influences are clearly evidenced in the heretical Vaishnava-Sahajiya that were evident in 17th century Bengal, though Tantric influences penetrated Vaishnavism as the other key streams of Hinduism, Shaivism and Shaktism from the 8th century.
Etymology
The name Vaishnavism is an English formation from the Sanskrit Vaishnava, (IAST vaiṣṇava), from the Vriddhi form of Vishnu. It means belonging to, or derived from Vishnu.
Principal beliefs
Vishnu: The Supreme
The principal belief of Vaishnavism is the supremacy of Vishnu or Narayana as the one Supreme God. This principle is also applicable to the many avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu as listed within the Puranas but excludes all other personalities referred in the Vedas or similar texts, (i.e Ganesh, Surya or Durga etc...) which are instead classified as 'demi-gods' or devas. Shiva is also viewed as subservient to Vishnu, although with the understanding that he is also above the category of an ordinary living being (jiva) . Some Vaishnava schools also identify the God of the Abrahamic religions with Vishnu, although it is not an essential tenet of Vaishnava belief, being outside of the scope of Vedic evidence.
Worship
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hinduism such as reincarnation, samsara, karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particular emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and performing deity worship (puja). Within their worship Vaishnava devotees will always see themselves as (at least partially) separate or distinct from their lord, Vishnu. Unlike other schools of Hinduism whose goal is liberation (moksha), or union with the Supreme Brahman, the ultimate goal of Vaishnava practice is an eternal life of bliss (ananda) in service to Vishnu, or one of his many avatars, in the spiritual realm of 'Vaikuntha', which lies beyond the temporary world of illusion (maya). The three features of the Supreme as described in the Bhagavata Purana--Brahman, Paramatma and Bhagavan--are viewed as the Universal Vishnu, Vishnu within the heart, and Vishnu the personality respectively.
Initiation
Vaishnavas commonly follow a process of initiation (diksha), given by a guru, under whom they are trained in order to understand Vaishnava practices. At the time of initiation the disciple is traditionally given a specific mantra, which they will then repeat, either out loud or within the mind, as an act of worship to Vishnu or one of his avatars. The practice of repetitive prayer is known as japa. The system of receiving initiation and training from a spiritual master is based on injunctions throughout scriptures held as sacred within the Vaishnava traditions:
- "Just try to learn the truth by approaching a spiritual master. Inquire from him submissively and render service unto him. The self-realized souls can impart knowledge unto you because they have seen the truth".(Bhagavad Gita)
- "One who is initiated into the Vaishnava mantra and who is devoted to worshiping Lord Vishnu is a Vaishnava. One who is devoid of these practices is not a Vaishnava."(Padma Purana)
- However, other scriptures specific to the Gaudiya lineage also give the opinion that: "Who chants the holy name of Krishna just once may be considered a Vaishnava. Such a person is worshipable and is the topmost human being."(Chaitanya Charitamrita)
Attitude to scriptures
Vaishnava traditions refer to the writings of previous acharyas in their respective lineage or sampradya (see below) as authoritative interpretations of scripture. While many schools like Smartism and Advaitism encourage interpretation of scriptures philosophically and metaphorically and not too literally, Vaishnavism stresses the literal meaning (mukhya vṛitti) as primary and indirect meaning (gauṇa vṛitti) as secondary: sākṣhād upadesas tu shrutih - "The instructions of the shruti-shāstra should be accepted literally, without fanciful or allegorical interpretations."
The Four Vaishnava sampradayas
Within traditional Vaishnavism there are four main disciplic lineages (sampradayas), each of which traces its roots back to a specific Vedic personality. The four sampradayas follow subtly different philosophical systems regarding the relationship between the soul (jiva) and God (Vishnu), although the majority of other core beliefs are identical.
- Rudra-Sampradaya
- Philosophy: Shuddhadvaita ("pure nondualism"), espoused by Vallabhacharya.
- Brahma-Sampradaya
- Philosophy: Dvaita ("dualism"), espoused by Madhvacharya, and also -
- Achintya Bheda Abheda ("inconceivable oneness and difference"), espoused by Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (See Gaudiya Vaishnavism).
- Lakshmi-Sampradaya
- Philosophy: Vishishtadvaita ("qualified nondualism"), espoused by Ramanujacharya (See Sri Vaishnavism).
- Kumara-Sampradaya
- Philosophy: Dvaitadvaita ("duality in unity"), espoused by Nimbarka. (See Nimbarka Sampradaya)
Other Branches
- The Ramanandi movement, begun by Ramananda.
- Mahapuruxiya Dharma, espoused by Sankardeva.
Vaishnava-Sahajiya
The Vaishnava-Sahajiya is a form of tantric Vaishnavism that originated in Bengal from the 17th century. Vaishnava-Sahajiya is generally considered as a 'left-handed path' (Sanskrit: vāmācāra) and 'heterodox' (Sanskrit: nāstika) to vedic injunction, though this is only a cosmetic understanding. The Vaishnava-Sahajiya sought religious experience through the five senses which included human coupling and sexual love. Sahaja (Sanskrit: “easy” or “natural”) as a system of worship was prevalent in the Tantric traditions common to both Hinduism and Buddhism in Bengal as early as the 8th–9th centuries. "Sahaja" was evident in the teachings and poetry of Mahasiddha Saraha (c.8th century CE, Bengal, Nalanda). The divine relationship between Krishna and Radha (guises of the divine masculine and divine feminine) were celebrated by other poets such as Candidas (15th century CE, Bengal), Jayadeva (c1200 CE, Orissa) and Vidyapati (c1352 – c1448, Bihar), whose works parallel the rasa or "divine mood" of human love and divine love; which was later explored by Chaitanya (1486 - 1533 CE, Bengal, Orissa), albeit in less overtly sexual practices. The Vaisnava-Sahajiya coterie is a synthesis and complex of these various traditions. The Vaisnava-Sahajiyas due to their sexual tantric practices were perceived with marked disdain by other religious communities and operated in secrecy. In their literature they deliberately employed an encrypted and enigmatic style of substitutions and correspondences that has come to be known the Twilight Language (Sanskrit: saṃdhyā-bhāṣā), iconic of all permutations of Tantra. Because of the necessity of privacy and secrecy, little is definitively known about their prevalence or practices.
Vaishnava tilak
Main article: Tilaka
The different Vaishnava sampradayas each have their own distinctive style of tilak which depict the siddhanta of their particular lineage:
In the Vallabha, Rudra-sampradaya the tilak worn is generally a single vertical red line. This line represents Yamuna devi. The form of Krishna worshiped in the Vallabha line is Sri Nathji or Govardhana. The consort of the Govardhana hill is the river Yamuna. Their process of surrender goes through Yamuna devi.
The Madhva sampradaya mark two vertical lines representing Krishna's 'lotus feet'. In between a vertical black line is made from the daily coal of the 'yajna-kunda' (fire sacrifice). In their sampradaya, the process of worship involves 'nitya-homa', or daily fire sacrifices to Narayana or Krishna. The remnant coal of the puja (worship) is used each day to mark the forehead. Underneath the black line, a yellow or red dot is added to indicate either Lakshmi or Radharani. Those who did not perform daily fire sacrifice wear the simple two line tilak only.
Members of the Sri Vaishnava tradition form tilak with two lines representing the feet of Narayana, with a red line in the middle which representing Lakshmidevi and a small line on the top bridge of the nose which represents the guru. Because the Sri Vaishnava sampradaya begins with Lakshmi, and because they approach Narayana through Lakshmi, their tilak reflects this process of surrender, know as Saranagati (or sometimes also Prapatti). Within Sri Vaishnavism, this process of surrender (sarangati) to Vishnu as Venkateshwara or Balaji is understood to be the most effective religious practice in the current age of Kali yuga. A variant to this is found within the Ramanandi sect, begun by Ramananda, who wear a similar tilak design but in reference to Sita and Rama (whom their devotion is focused upon) rather than Lakshmi and Narayana.
In the Gaudiya Vaishnava sampradaya the tilak is usually made out of mud from Vrindavan. The main tilak is basically identical to the Madhva tilak. The slight difference arose due to the emphasis on the chanting (japa and kirtan) in the Gaudiya tradition. In Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's line, chanting is given as the essential devotional (bhakti) activity to be performed in Kali yuga in preference to fire sacrifices. As such, the black line made from the ash of the fire sacrifice is not included. The second difference arose due to Chaitanya Mahaprabhu's process of approaching Krishna. In the Gaudiya line devotees generally approach Radha and Krishna through a servant such as Tulsidevi. To indicate this, the red dot representing Radha is replaced with a tulsi leaf offered at the base of Krishna's feet. In Gaudiya belief only through the mercy of Tulsi (or another pure devotee) can pure devotion to Radha & Krishna or Krishna & Balarama be awakened.
In Nimbarka Sampradaya, the tilak is made of Gopi-Chandana (the clay from Gopi Kunda lake in Dwarka, Gujarat), as described in the Vasudeva Upanishad. It starts at the bridge of the nose and continues as two vertical lines to the top of the forehead. This is said to represent the temple of God. Within these lines, between the eyebrows is a black dot, made from the slate found in Barsana, Uttar Pradesh, the sacred birthplace of Radha. This is said to represent God as Radha and Krishna together. This tilak personifies the tenets of the Sampradaya, that God is Radha and Krishna together, none else. It is supposed to have been first given to Nimbarka at the time of his initiation to the Sage, Narada. The tilak is first given to an initiate by their guru at the time of initiation, and after this, daily the devotee will remember his guru before he adorns the tilaka on his head.
History of Vaishnavism
The monotheistic worship of Vishnu was already well developed in the period of the Itihasas (roughly 400 BCE - 200 CE). Vaishnavism is particularly expounded in a part of the Mahabharata known as the Bhagavad Gita, which contains the words of Krishna, commonly viewed as an Avatar of Vishnu.
With the help of Alvars, a set of twelve saints who with their devotional hymns spread the sect to the common people, Vaishnavism flourished in South India in the VII - X centuries CE. The names of the Alvars are:
- Poigai Alvar
- Bhoothathalvar
- Peyalvar
- Thirumalisai Alvar
- Madhurakavi Alvar
- Nammalvar
- Periyalvar
- Andal
- Kulasekara Alvar
- Thondaradippodi Alvar
- Thiruppaana Alvar
- Thirumangai Alvar
Vaishnavism is still particularly commonplace throughout South India as a result of the Alvars, especially in Tamil Nadu. The temples which the Alvars visited or founded are now known as Divya Desams. Their poems in praise of Vishnu in Tamil language are collectively known as Naalayira (Divya Prabandha).
In later years Vaishnava practices increased in popularity due to the influence of sages like Ramanujacharya, Vedanta Desika, Surdas, Tulsidas, Tyagaraja, etc...
Large Vaishnava communities now exist throughout India, and particularly in Western Indian states, such as Rajasthan and Gujarat. Important sites of pilgrimage for Vaishnavs include: Sri Rangam, Vrindavan, Mathura, Ayodhya, Tirupati, Puri, and Dwarka.
The Puranic Epics
The two great Indian epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, are essential to Vaishnava philosophy and culture:
The Ramayana describes the story of the avatar known as Rama or Ramachandra, and is taken as a history of the 'ideal king', based around the principles of dharma, morality and ethics. Rama's wife Sita, his brother Lakshman and servant Hanuman all play key roles within the Vaishnava tradition as examples of Vaishnava etiquette and behaviour. As does the evil king Ravana who plays the opposite role of how not to behave.
The Mahabharata is centered around the popular avatar Krishna, and details the story of a dynastic war between two sets of cousins, with Krishna and his close friends, the Pandavas playing pivotal roles in the drama. The philosophical highlight of the work is the chapter covering a conversation between Arjuna and Krishna prior to the final battle, individually known as the Bhagavad Gita. The Bhagavad Gita, though influential in most philosophies of Hinduism, is of particular importance to Vaishnavas because it is believed to be an accurate record of the very words spoken by Krishna himself. Vaishnavas regard Krishna either as an avatar of Vishnu, or as the source of all avatars, including Vishnu himself (this view is held within the Gaudiya and Nimbarka sampradayas). Thus, there is no higher source of information within Vaishnava theology than that of Krishna himself.
Both works are often re-enacted in part as dramas by followers of Vaishnavism, especially on festival days concerning each of the specific avatars. The Bhagavad Gita is widely studied as a theological textbook.
Vaishnava Upanishads
Of the 108 Upanishads of the Muktika, 13 are considered Vaishnava Upanishads. They are listed with their associated Veda (SV, ŚYV, KYV, AV):
- Nṛsiṃhatāpanī (AV)
- Mahānārāyaṇa (AV)
- Rāmarahasya (AV)
- Rāmatāpaṇi (AV)
- Vāsudeva (SV)
- Avyakta (SV)
- Tārasāra (SYV)
- Gopālatāpani (AV)
- Kṛṣṇa (AV)
- Hayagrīva (AV)
- Dattātreya (AV)
- Gāruḍa (AV)
- Kali-Saṇṭāraṇa (Kali) (KYV)
Academic study
Main article: KrishnologyVaishnava theology has been a subject of study for many devotees, philosophers and scholars within India for centuries. In recent decades this study has also been taken on by a number of academic institutions in Europe, such as the Oxford Centre for Hindu Studies and Bhaktivedanta College. The Vaishnava scholars instrumental in this western discourse include Tamala Krishna Goswami, Hridayananda dasa Goswami, Graham Schweig, Kenneth R. Valpey, Ravindra Svarupa dasa, Sivarama Swami, Satyaraja Dasa, and Guy Beck, among others.
The Journal of Vaishnava studies
Founded in 1992 by Steven J. Rosen the Journal of Vaishnava Studies (JVS) is an academic journal of Hindu studies, and Vaishnava studies in particular. Dedicated to scholarly research associated with all Vishnu-related traditions. The course has received praise from Indological entities for bringing Vaishnava studies into the Western academic environment. In the year 2002 the Journal affiliated with Christopher-Newport University, in Virginia.
See also
References
- Major Branches - Hinduism from adherents.com
- Adherents.com statistics - I
- Contemporary Theological Trends in the Hare Krishna Movement "Until the last fifteen years or so, there had been a lack of scholarship in the West on Vaishnavism, and this was seen by Hare Krishna devotees as a situation which must be changed."
- Brahma-Samhita 5.45 "The supremacy of Sambhu is subservient to that of Govinda ; hence they are not really different from each other... He is the lord of jiva but yet partakes of the nature of a separated portion of Govinda."
- krishna.com "The names can be generic terms, such as “God” or “the Absolute Truth.” They can be in Sanskrit, such as Govinda, Gopala, or Shyamasundara. They can be in other languages, such as Yahweh and Allah."
- Bhag-P 1.2.11 "Learned transcendentalists who know the Absolute Truth call this nondual substance Brahman, Paramatma or Bhagavan."
- Bhag Gita 4:34
- Caitanya Caritamrta: Madhya-lila, 15.106, 16.72, 16.74
- Chaitanya Charitamrita: Madhya-lila, 15.106
- Jiva Goswami, Kṛiṣhna Sandarbha 29.26-27
- Source: (accessed: Monday July 9, 2007)
- Bhag-P 1.3.28 "krishnas tu bhagavan svayam"
External links
- Vaishnavism (Heart of Hinduism)
- Hinduism & Vaishnavism (veda.harekrsna.cz)
- Who is Vishnu? Vaishnava FAQ (dvaita.org)
- Ramanuja and Srivaishnavism (srivaishnavan.com)
- The Basic Premises of Vaishnavism (krishna.com)
- An Overview of the Gaudiya Vaishnava Tradition (gaudiya.com)
- Online library of articles on Vaishnavism and the Ramanuja Sampradaya (sadagopan.org)