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John Bowlby (February 26, 1907 – September 2, 1990) was a British psychoanalyst, notable for his interest in child development and his pioneering work in attachment theory.
Background
John Bowlby was born in London to an upper-middle-class family. He was the fourth of six children and was raised by a nanny in traditional British fashion of his class. His father, Sir Anthony Bowlby, was surgeon to the King's Household, but with a tragic history; at age five, his own father (John's grandfather) had been killed while serving as a war correspondent in the Anglo-Chinese Opium War. Normally, John saw his mother only one hour a day after teatime, though during the summer she was more available. Like many other mothers of her social class, she considered that parental attention and affection would lead to dangerous spoiling. When Bowlby was almost four years old, his beloved nanny, who was actually his primary caretaker in his early years, left the family. Later, he was to describe this separation as being as tragic as the loss of a mother.
At the age of seven, he was sent off to boarding school, as was common for boys of his social status. In his work Separation: Anxiety and Anger, he revealed that he regarded it as a terrible time for him. He later said "I wouldn't send a dog away to boarding school at age seven". Because of such experiences as a child, he displayed an unusual sensitivity to children’s suffering throughout his life.
Career
John Bowlby’s intellectual career began at Trinity College, University of Cambridge, where he studied psychology and pre-clinical sciences. He won prizes for outstanding intellectual performance. After Cambridge he took some time to work with maladjusted and delinquent children, then at the age of twenty-two enrolled at University College Hospital in London. At the age of twenty-six he qualified in medicine. While still in medical school he also found time to enroll himself in the Institute for Psychoanalysis. Following medical school, he trained in adult psychiatry at the Maudsley Hospital. In 1937, he qualified as a psychoanalyst, and he became president of Trinity College in 1938.
During World War II, he was a Lieutenant Colonel, RAMC. After the war, he was Deputy Director of the Tavistock Clinic, and from 1950, Mental Health Consultant to the World Health Organisation.
Because of his previous work with maladapted and delinquent children, he became interested in the development of children and began work at the Child Guidance Clinic in London. This interest was probably increased by a variety of wartime events involving separation of young children from familiar people; these included the rescue of Jewish children by the Kindertransport arrangements, the evacuation of children from London to keep them safe from air raids, and the use of group nurseries to allow mothers of young children to contribute to the war effort. Bowlby was interested from the beginning of his career in the problem of separation and the war-time work of Anna Freud and Dorothy Burlingham on evacuees and Rene Spitz on orphans. By the late 1950's he had accumulated a body of observational and theoretical work to indicate the fundamental importance for human development of attachment from birth.
Bowlby was interested in finding out the actual patterns of family interaction involved in both healthy and pathological development. He focused on how attachment difficulties were transmitted from one generation to the next. He propounded the theory that attachment behavior was essentially an evolutionary survival strategy for protecting the infant from predators. Mary Ainsworth, a student of Bowlby’s, further extended and tested his ideas, and in fact played the primary role in suggesting that several attachment styles existed. The three most important experiences for Bowlby’s future work and the development of attachment theory were his work with:
- Maladapted and delinquent children.
- James Robertson (in 1952) in making the documentary film A Two-Year Old Goes to the Hospital, which was one of the films about ”young children in brief separation“. The documentary illustrated the impact of loss and suffering experienced by young children separated from their primary caretakers. This film was instrumental in a campaign to alter hospital restrictions on visiting by parents. In 1952 when he and Robertson presented their film A Two Year Old Goes to Hospital to the British Psychoanalytical Society, psychoanalysts did not accept that a child would mourn or experience grief on separation but instead saw the childs distress as caused by elements of unconscious fantasies (in the film because the mother was pregnant).
- Melanie Klein during his psychoanalytic training. She was his supervisor, however they had different views about the role of the mother in the treatment of a three-year-old boy. Specifically and importantly, Klein stressed the role of the child's fantasies about his mother, and Bowlby emphasized the actual history of the relationship. Bowlbys views that children were responding to real life events and not unconscious fantasies were rejected by psychoanalysts and Bowbly was effectively ostracized by the psychoanalytic community. He later expressed the view that his interest in real-life experiences and situations was "alien to the Kleinian outlook".
Ethology and evolutionary concepts
From the 1950s Bowlby was in personal and scientific contact with leading European scientists in the field of ethology, namely Niko Tinbergen, Konrad Lorenz, and especially the rising star of ethology Robert Hinde. Using the viewpoints of this emerging science and reading extensively in the ethology literature, Bowlby developed new explanatory hypotheses for what is now known as human attachment behaviour. In particular, on the basis of ethological evidence he was able to reject the dominant 'cupboard love' theory of attachment prevailing in psychoanalysis and learning theory of the 1940s and 1950s. He also introduced the concepts of environmentally stable or labile human behaviour allowing for the revolutionary combination of the idea of a species-specific genetic bias to become attached and the concept of individual differences in attachment security as environmentally labile strategies for adaptation to a specific childrearing niche. Alternately, Bowlby’s thinking about the nature and function of the caregiver-child relationship influenced ethological research, and inspired students of animal behaviour such as Tinbergen, Hinde, and Harry Harlow. Bowlby spurred Hinde to start his ground breaking work on attachment and separation in primates (monkeys and humans), and in general emphasized the importance of evolutionary thinking about human development that foreshadowed the new interdisciplinary approach of evolutionary psychology. Obviously, the encounter of ethology and attachment theory led to a genuine cross-fertilization.
Bowlby and the 'Maternal Deprivation' controversy
Main article: Maternal deprivationAccording to Bowlby, his early work 'Maternal Care and Mental Health' (1951) "focussed attention on the relationship of a young child to the mother as an important determinant of mental health". This idea came to be known as the theory of 'Maternal Deprivation'.
However Rutter states that there are four main differences between 'Maternal Deprivation' and the attachment theory;-
(1) The abandonment of the notion of 'monotropy'. Bowlby's early writings were widely understood to mean that there was a biological need to develop a selective attachment with just one person.
(2) It came to be appreciated that social development was affected by later, as well as earlier relationships.
(3) Early accounts emphasized the need for selective attachments to develop during a relatively brief sensitivity period with the implication that even good parenting that is provided after that watershed is too late.
(4) Bowlby drew parallels between the development of attachments and imprinting. It became apparent that there were more differences than similarities and this comparison was dropped later on and is no longer seen as helpful by most writers on attachment.
Even at the time there was a great deal of professional disquiet about the theory of 'Maternal Deprivation' and the World Health Organization produced "Deprivation of maternal care. A reassessment of its effects" in 1962. In 'Maternal Deprivation Reassessed', which New Society describes as 'A classic in the field of child care' Professor Sir Michael Rutter (1972) pointed out that other people, including their fathers, can be equally important to children and Schaffer in 'Social Development' (2000) states that it seems likely 'social convention' explains whatever differences are observed between parents and that when fathers do assume the principal responsibility for their children such differences disappear.
The 'Attachment and Loss' trilogy
Bowlby stated that in his later work 'Attachment and Loss' he made good the "deficiencies of the data and the lack of theory to link alleged cause and effect" and thereby diffused the concept of 'Maternal Deprivation' into the attachment theory. According to Rutter, who he described as his "erstwhile critic", this later work took the attachment theory forward in five key ways,
(1) It differentiated attachment qualities of relationships from other aspects.
(2) The development of attachments were placed within the context of normal developmental processes and specific mechanisms were proposed.
(3) The development of attachments was placed firmly in a biological framework.
(4) A mental mechanism, namely internal working models of relationships was suggested as a means for both the carry forward of the effects of early attachment experiences into later relationships and also a mechanism for change.
(5) Bowlby made various suggestions about the way an insecurity in selective early attachments might play a role in the genesis of later psycho pathology.
Bowlby's Legacy
Main article: Attachment theoryThere is still a great deal of confusion regarding the contribution of John Bowlby. Although his earlier work led to major improvements in the care of young children in hospitals and residential institutions the theory of 'Maternal Deprivation' met with a critical reception. His supporters still claim that he is the 'founder' of the attachment theory but there were others at the time also working in the field and Bowlby himself never claimed this credit, instead he acknowledged that his work had given rise to "widespread controversy" (see; attachment therapy), as well as "extensive research" (see; parent-child psychotherapy, 'Circle of Security', intergenerational communication of trauma, safe start initiative). According to Rutter the importance of Bowlby's initial writings on 'maternal deprivation' lay in his emphasis that children's experiences of interpersonal relationships were crucial to their psychological development.
Death
John Bowlby died September 2, 1990 at his summer home in Isle of Skye, Scotland. He had married Ursula Longstaff, herself the daughter of a surgeon, on April 16, 1938, and they had four children, including (Sir) Richard Bowlby, who succeeded his uncle as third Baronet and has in recent years been supportive of interest in his father's work, in which he has, however, no professional training.
References
- ^ Schwartz J (1999). Cassandra's Daughter: A History of Psychoanalysis. Viking/Allen Lane. p. p. 225. ISBN 0670886238.
{{cite book}}:|page=has extra text (help) - Mercer, J. (2006). 'Understanding attachment.' Westport,CT:Praeger.
- Van der Horst FCP (2007). "John Bowlby and ethology: An annotated interview with Robert Hinde". Attachment & Human Development. 9 (4): 321–335. doi:10.1080/14616730601149809. ISSN 1469-2988. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - Van der Horst FCP (in press). ""When strangers meet": John Bowlby and Harry Harlow on attachment behavior". Integrative Psychological & Behavioral Science.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - ^ Bowlby J(1986) Citation Classic, Maternal Care and Mental Health
- ^ "Clinical
Implications of Attachment Concepts: Retrospect and Prospect". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 36: 549–571. 1995.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|name=ignored (help); line feed character in|title=at position 10 (help) - Rutter M (1981) Maternal Deprivation Reassessed, Second edition, Harmondsworth, Penguin.
- Schaffer H R (2000) Social Development, Oxford, Blackwell
- Bowlby J (1969-1980. 3 vols.) Attachment and loss. New York: Basic Books
See also
- Attachment disorder
- attachment in children
- Attachment theory
- Attachment therapy
- Reactive attachment disorder
- Refrigerator mother
- Trauma model of mental disorders
Selected bibliography
- Bowlby J (1995). Maternal Care and Mental Health. The master work series (2nd edition ed.). Northvale, NJ; London: Jason Aronson. ISBN 1-56821-757-9. OCLC 33105354. .
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help); Unknown parameter|origdate=ignored (|orig-date=suggested) (help) - Bowlby J (1976). Fry M (abridged & ed.) (ed.). Child Care and the Growth of Love. Pelican books. Ainsworth MD (2 add. ch.) (2nd edn. ed.). London: Penguin Books. ISBN 0-14-020271-4. OCLC 154150053. ISBN 0-14-013458-1.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help);|format=requires|url=(help); Unknown parameter|origdate=ignored (|orig-date=suggested) (help) - Bowlby J (1999). Attachment. Attachment and Loss (vol. 1) (2nd edition ed.). New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-00543-8 (pbk). OCLC 11442968. LCCN 00266879; NLM 8412414.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help); Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); Unknown parameter|origdate=ignored (|orig-date=suggested) (help) - Bowlby J (1973). Separation: Anxiety & Anger. Attachment and Loss (vol. 2); (International psycho-analytical library no.95). London: Hogarth Press. ISBN 0-70120-301-3. OCLC 8353942. ISBN 0712666214 (pbk).
- Bowlby J (1980). Loss: Sadness & Depression. Attachment and Loss (vol. 3); (International psycho-analytical library no.109). London: Hogarth Press. ISBN 0-70120-350-1. OCLC 59246032. ISBN 0-465-04238-4 (pbk).
- Bowlby J (1988). A Secure Base: Parent-Child Attachment and Healthy Human Development. Tavistock professional book. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-00640-6. OCLC 42913724. ISBN 0422622303 (pbk).
- Bretherton I (1992). "The origins of attachment theory: John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth". Developmental Psychology. 28 (5): 759–775. ISSN 0012-1649. OCLC 1566542.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - Holmes J (1993). John Bowlby and Attachment Theory. Makers of modern psychotherapy. London; New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07729-X. OCLC 27266442. ISBN 0-415-07730-3 (pbk).
- Van Dijken S (1998). John Bowlby: His Early Life: A Biographical Journey into the Roots of Attachment Theory. London; New York: Free Association Books. ISBN 1853433926. OCLC 39982501. ISBN 1853433934 (pbk).
- Van Dijken S (Summer 1998). "Bowlby before Bowlby: The sources of an intellectual departure in psychoanalysis and psychology". Journal of the History of the Behavioural Sciences. 34 (3): 247–269. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1520-6696(199822)34:3<247::AID-JHBS2>3.0.CO;2-N. ISSN 0022-5061. Retrieved 2007-09-01.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - Mayhew B (2006). "Between love and aggression: The politics of John Bowlby". History of the Human Sciences. 19 (4): 19–35. doi:10.1177/0952695106069666. ISSN 0952-6951.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|month=ignored (help); Unknown parameter|quotes=ignored (help) - Van der Horst FCP (2007). "John Bowlby and ethology: An annotated interview with Robert Hinde". Attachment & Human Development. 9 (4): 321–335. doi:10.1080/14616730601149809. ISSN 1469-2988. Retrieved 2007-11-30.
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External links
- Summaries and links to full-text or articles and books by John Bowlby
- John Bowlby: Attachment Theory Across Generations 4-minute clip from a documentary film used primarily in higher education.
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