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Introduction
Mysore rule called all armed “infidel” rebels from Malabar as “Nairs”. This was because “Nairs” as noble caste held true power in Malabari political and social scenario in a way similar to one held Kuli-Marathas in Maharashtra. In same way, Maratha was used as a synonym for all Maharashtrians; Nair was used to denote all heathen Malabaris.
Mysore armies of Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan were engaged in military operations big and small from 1766 to 1793 to put down rebellious “Nairs” who thwarted all efforts of Mysore government to set up their administration in Malabar and collect revenue. Hyder Ali invaded Malabar with twin objectives – one was to secure this pepper rich region to enrich his treasury and two was to have access to sea so that he can have direct link with French at Mahe. It was also hoped that Mysore control of Malabar would cripple English East India Company’s spice trade in Malabar.
But instead of being an asset, Mysorean conquest turned out to be a liability – “Nair” insurgency ensured that revenue collected was far below the sums of money spent by Mysoreans and during monsoons of each year, “Nairs” took to field as Mysorean firearms and artillery was out of action during savage rainfall and whole of Mysore army detachment stationed in Malabar would be wiped out before rainfall ended. In this way, Mysore army lost nearly 250,000 soldiers and in enemy camp, some 100,000 “Nairs” died in military action that spanned across twenty seven years. Prolonged war broke down social structure and economy of Malabar with a large part of her population either destroyed or dispersed
Phases of “Padayottam”
“Padayottam” is how Mysore military operations are known in Malabar. They have five stages –
- 1766-1768 2 years Period of major warfare
- 1768-1774 6 years Period of minor warfare
- 1774-1782 8 years Period of major warfare
- 1782-1784 2 years Period of lull
- 1784-1791 7 years Period of major warfare
- 1791-1793 2 years Period of minor warfare
Seventeen years of large scale warfare involved operations across all of Malabar whereas rest of eight years involved minor operations in smaller districts.
Causes for Resistance
“Nairs” were roused into resistance to Mysore rule due to four factors –
One, exorbitant rate of land revenue fixed by Mysore officials were beyond ability of most pay. Two, this, coupled with harsh punishments for default and outright plunder and requisition by Mysore troops drove whole of Malabar province into rebellion.
Two, religious bigotry by Muslim troops of Mysore army – which ranged from forcible conversions to destruction of shrines roused much passion in local Malabaris.
Three, extreme cruelty displayed by Mysore troops during their reprisals only fuelled more rebellion. Like Pashtuns, “Nairs” also played by rule of Kudipaga or Blood Feud which motivated men to avenge their kin and kith who were killed, raped, abducted, mutilated or deported. Eye was met with eye and tooth for tooth.
Four, people of Malabar in general had strong spirit of independence, self respect and military valor. It was common for men of all ranks to possess arms and was adept in art of war also. Thus there was no shortage of military manpower. Vacancies that arose due to depletion of aristocrats were rapidly filled by commoners.
Guerrilla Nature of Resistance
Thick forests abounded much of Malabar. Wooded hills became “forts” of “Nairs”. As they fought mostly in small bands and lacked horses and artillery and was short of ammunition, they chose to wage forest warfare for most part of year. They always focused on plunder of enemy army baggage while enemy troops were on March and once enemy took position in stockades and forts, “Nairs” focused on plunder of enemy depots and treasuries. But in monsoons when advantage of enemy – ie his fire-power and cavalry – is lost due to rains and mud, “Nairs” took to field and destroyed Mysore regiments stationed in Malabar. Each year, after rains, Mysore government sent fresh reinforcements to boost up scattered remnants of Mysore army in Malabar. “Nairs” also, often crossed into Mysore provinces of Coimbatore and Mysore which they plundered and devastated.
Course of Events
(1766 to 1768)
Hyder Ali invaded Kerala with 16,000 troops in 1766 from South Canara on pretext that Rajas of Chiracal and Calicut had not paid him tribute they had promised earlier. Hyder Ali was greatly helped due to sabotage organized by Ali Raja of Cannanore and Ambu Tamban, renegade prince of Chiracal.
Then he marched into Kadathanad where he encountered serious resistance which he overcame and put the entire defeated force to sword.
He easily reached Calicut and encountered no resistance there and Raja of Calicut who came to negotiate surrender was kept In house arrest and subject to ill treatment. Unable to bear anymore, he committed suicide by setting fire to his palace.
After Calicut, Hyder’s troops marched towards Palghat and captured it and then went to Coimbatore which was a Mysore district. Before he left, he posted 3000 troops under Raza Sahib at Ponnani and appointed Madanna as civil governor of province of Malabar.
In monsoon of 1766, whole of Malabar explodes in rebellion. “Nairs” resorted to guerrilla warfare and Mysore outposts were trapped. Mysore garrison of 3000 commanded by Raza Sahib faced annihilation by swarms of “Nair” rebels.
Once he learnt of this rebellion, Hyder rushes back with 13,000 troops to rescue Raza Khan and his troops. But on way, Hyder’s army was blocked by a well prepared force of Calicut “Nairs” who had took position in an entrenched camp and was determined to defeat invading Mysore army. A terrible battle followed and “Nairs” almost won, but lost due to a surprise attack on their flank by a Mysore detachment led by a French general.
With this victory, Hyder’s troops decided to punish “Nairs” severely for their audacity. His troops hunted “Nairs” in thousands. Prisoners were sent to Manjeri where Hyder had set up concentration camps and collected 15,000 captives – all of whom died due to savagery of monsoons and starvation.
Hyder thought he had crushed “Nairs” once and for all and returns. In 1767, he sent a Mysore army of 4,000 men to Kottayath, a kingdom in North Malabar that was not yet under Mysore control.
Whole Mysore army was surrounded and annihilated by a force of 2,000 Kottayath “Nairs” and all their baggage was looted by “Nairs” – this signaled another wholesale uprising across Malabar – Mysore outposts were trapped once more. This time, rebels made no effort to fight pitched battles – instead they waged only guerrilla warfare.
By 1768, Mysore troops in Malabar – around 20,000 troops faced threat of being overrun by “Nairs” who had effectively blockaded Mysore outposts of food and reinforcements. Also Hyder Ali faced threat of massive invasions by Marathas and Nizam along with English.
Ignorance of rebels about Hyder’s desperate condition was exploited by Hyder’s minister Madanna to talk and let rebels to allow trapped Mysore troops leave Malabar unmolested. He even could persuade rebels to pay large sums and thus Hyder not only saved his troops but even could collect a large treasure.
(1768 to 1774)
In 1768, Hyder restores all Rajas of Malabar on condition that they pay tribute but annexed Chiracal and Palghat. Palghat was under direct Mysore rule whereas Chiracal was leased to Ali Raja as a Zamindari. But both districts were plagued by serious disturbances as “Nairs” were in no mood to surrender.
But rest of Rajas of Malabar refuses to pay tribute. Neither did they make any serious effort to build up political coalitions or strong military forces. Not only that, Raja of Calicut even went for a futile war with Cochin. All this made Malabar once more vulnerable.
(1774 to 1782)
Hyder Ali invades Malabar in 1774 via Wynad and descends into coastal Malabar through Tamarasseri Defile. Mysore army commanded by Sreenivasa Rao and Syed Sahib meets no resistance from Rajas.
But soon, once more refraction and turbulence engulfs whole of Malabar. This phase witnessed rise of charismatic war leaders across Malabar like Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja and Ravi Varma.
In 1776, Hyder restores Chiracal to a Hindu prince who allied with Mysore till his death in 1789. He paid tribute regularly and helped Mysore war efforts with his troops.
As a part of Hyder Ali’s larger program of war on English, he decided to capture vital English stronghold of Tellicherry on Malabar coast – aim was to cripple English trade in spices as well to deprive rebels of their source of arms and ammunition. English traded pepper for firearms and shot with rebellious “Nairs.”
Hyder orders Hindu Raja of Chiracal to besiege Tellicherry as a part of his large war on English. In 1778, Hyder’s Hindu proxy attempt to capture Tellicherry but was forced to flee due to support of Pazhassi Raja to English.
In 1779, a Mysore army supported by troops of Chiracal Raja defeats Pazhassi Raja and conquers Kadathanad which had supported English and Pazhassi Raja.
With Kadathanad and Kottayath seemingly subdued, Mysoreans proceeded to besiege Tellicherry in 1779. But a strong contingent sent to Tellicherry by Pazhassi Raja to boost up the weak English defenses thwart all hopes of a Mysore victory.
In 1779, Mysore officials invite Ravi Varma of Calicut for peace talks in order to arrest him. But once he scented a plot, he fled away.
In 1779, a Mysore army was defeated Pazhassi Raja in Wynad in a crucial battle at Kalpetta.
In 1782, Mysorean besiegers at Tellicherry was caught between a two pronged attack planned by Pazhassi Raja and supported by English and whole Mysore army was defeated. This signaled a mass uprising across Malabar that annihilated Mysore provincial army and terminated Mysore rule.
(1782 to 1784)
During this phase, Malabar once more recovered her independence and remained unmolested.
(1784 to 1791)
With Treaty of Mangalore, English accepts Malabar as Mysore sphere of influence. Also Hyder Ali had died and now his son Tipu Sultan was in power. In 1784, chiefs of Malabar who had earlier fought Mysore decided to talk and come to a peace agreement with Mysore government. But that failed due to exorbitant revenue demand of Mysore officials and whole of province flared up in revolt.
Unable to contain revolt even after four years of counter insurgency operations, Arshad Beg Khan, Subedar of Malabar implores Tipu Sultan to visit Malabar personally to deal with rebellion that had now spiraled out of control.
Under Hyder Ali, Moplay Muslims of Malabar was exempt from tax. Tipu’s insistence that all pay heavy tax to him, roused Moplays of South Malabar to rise in revolt and they allied with “Nairs” led by Ravi Varma. Moplay rebels were led by Hassan Koya Gurikkal popularly known as Manjeri Athan Gurikkal. He fought Mysore troops from 1785 to 1789.
In 1785, Rama Varma, Raja of Nileshwaram, rose in revolt and fought and defeated all Mysore armies sent to curb him. So great was his successes in field that Mysore Faujdar at Bekal had to use treachery – he was invited for peace talks and hanged at Bekal fort in 1786.
In 1788, Tipu himself arrives at Malabar to deal with rebellion and opens talks with Kishen Varma of Calicut, who was uncle of Ravi Varma and head of rebel movement in South Malabar. But talks breakdown as Tipu’s forcible conversions only pushed rebels into an uncompromising stand. Also his edicts on forcible conversion roused whole of Malabar into a mass uprising that terminated almost whole of Mysore presence in Malabar.
In 1789, Tipu came to Malabar from South Canara with a vast army of 60,000 men. It was the largest force ever to invade Malabar after Chera-Chola War 1000 years ago. Usually, Mysore troops in Malabar amounted to around 20,000.
No opposition could stand before this overwhelming force. Rebels who had so far kept to the field fled away into forests. Tipu also began large scale forcible conversion. Tipu himself estimate that he converted 400,000 infidels in Malabar and destroyed countless shrines. How many of his converts stuck to their faith is debatable as Innes have recorded that Hindus of North Malabar had reconverted wholesale at earliest opportunity.
Manjeri Athan Gurikkal was arrested and sent to prison in Mysore. Same was also done to another incorrigible named Edacheri Nambiar, prime minister of Kadathanad. Ettipangi Achan of Palghat was also imprisoned and he soon died in jail. But Edacheri Nambiar and Manjeri Athan Gurikkal was later released in 1792 and they went home to trouble English.
Pazhassi Raja withstands one of Tipu’s onslaughts. Pazhassi Raja’s “Nairs” routed a detachment of Tipu’s army in a battle at Trikai Hill.
Tipu also reestablished rule of Arakkal Beevi in Chiracal in 1789 and had Hindu Raja caught and hanged.
With this, Moplay Muslims, who viewed Arakkal clan as their head, joined hands with Tipu’s troops in bid to crush “Nairs” and Islamize all of Malabar. Hindus flee into forests and partisan bands witnessed phenomenal growth in this period. Constant predations by “Nairs”, abandonment of agriculture by peasantry who fled into woods and joined partisans, scorched earth by Mysore troops on large scale and Islamic fanaticism on unprecedented scale threw whole of Malabar into unprecedented levels of economic and social collapse.
Tipu who felt he had crushed “Nairs” goes for war with Travancore but soon found himself involved in another war with English.
Rajas and “Nairs” whom Tipu felt had crushed but were in reality wandering in forest and engaged in predatory warfare on their Muslim oppressors were invited by English to come and help them. They did not miss this opportunity to settle old score.
Once English military missions landed on Malabar Coast, “Nairs” joined them in thousands. In most decisive engagement fought between Mysore and English in Malabar at Tirurangadi in 1790, English force of 2,000 men supported by Ravi Varma’s 5,000 men defeated Mysore army of 13,000 men. This battled proved decisive as it allowed English to make short work of Mysore stronghold at Palghat, Cannanore and Katirur and then march into Mysore Plateau from west.
Aided by “Nairs” of Pazhassi Raja and “Ravi Varma” of Chiracal, English overwhelmed Mysore strong points in North Malabar.
“Nairs” indulge in large scale massacres of Moplay Muslims across Malabar – most serious was in Chiracal where only English intervention could save Muslims.
By 1791, Mysore troops were driven off coastal Malabar. But they continued to fight “Nairs” of Pazhassi Raja in Wynad from where last of Mysore troops was expelled in 1793.
Some Major Rebel Leaders
- Ravi Varma of Calicut
- Kishen Varma of Calicut
- Kerala Varma “Pazhassi Raja” of Kottayam
- Rama Varma of Nileshwaram, Raja of Nileshwaram
- Edacheri Nambiar of Kadathanad, Prime Minister of Kadathanad Raja
- Manjeri Hassan Koya Gurikkal, Zamorin’s Revenue Collector of Manjeri
Of these, Rama Varma was caught and hanged in 1786. Hassan Koya and Edacheri Nambiar were caught, kept in irons and imprisoned in 1789 only to be released after 1792. Kishen Varma and Ravi Varma evaded enemy and lived to see final triumph over Mysore army. Kishen Varma would die in 1793 a peaceful death, but his nephew would go on to fight British and die in 1793. Pazhassi Raja also chose to fight English after Mysorean evacuation and fought for over a decade and died in action in 1805.
Conclusion
"Padayottam" was indeed a long, grim and one of the bloodiest struggles in Indian history as death roll ran in hundreds of thousands. Mysore’s oppressive and bigoted government in Malabar had roused up whole country into rebellion and “Nairs” being first military-noble caste was earmarked for genocide as they were a source of constant unrest.
But Mysoreans labeled all their infidel opponents in Malabar as “Nairs” – but reality was that plenty of rebels belonged to peasant castes like Tiyars and tribes like Kurichias and even Moplays of Southern Malabar had fought Mysore troops.
Mysore policy of oppressive revenue and harsh reprisals on those incapable of payment and this was primary cause of rebellion in Malabar. This was compounded by Tipu’s program of forcible conversions from 1788 to 1791 and even those who wavered between peace and revolt were pushed into rebel camp.
It would be more accurate to say that Tipu instead of beginning a chapter of forcible conversions and destruction of Hindu shrines only gave official sanction and blessing to what was most likely followed by Mysore troops in Malabar. Forcible conversions and destruction of shrines were practiced quite widely Muslim armies on their infidel enemies especially during rebellions by infidels and what Tipu did was in no way unique. Conversion of “Nair” prisoners was there even during Hyder Ali’s reign – and Hyder is supposed to be a moderate in affairs of religion. Hyder’s Chela Ayaz Khan was originally a forcible convert from North Malabar named Kammaran Nambiar.
Hyder Ali invaded Malabar in hope that conquest of this territory would become an asset to Mysore in economic, political and military terms. But instead it became a liability and in end turned out to be an ulcer. Determination and skill with which “Nairs” fought to resist Mysore rule in Malabar put paid to all plans of Mysore Nawabs to collect land revenue and profit by spices trade. To cling on to Malabar and deal with “Nair” rebels, Mysore government had to post a large regular army as provincial guard in Malabar. This, coupled with heavy annual losses of men and ordnance and need to sent money and reinforcements to Malabar put strain of Mysore military manpower as well as state finances. Troops, cash and weaponry that would have been of more use in military operations on Marathas and English was thus frittered away in Malabar.
Like Napoleon’s conquest of Spain, Mysore conquest of Malabar proved fatal to Mysore Nawabs during their war on English. It trapped Mysore into a two-front war with English during Third and Fourth Anglo-Mysore Wars. Mysore project to capture Tellicherry would have easily worked had it not been for help given by rebellious Kottayath Raja. Also catastrophic Mysore defeat in Tirurangadi in 1790 had much to do with help given by Zamorin princes to English. English army missions which landed on Malabar coast in 1790 would not met with such good successes had it not been for active local help given by refractory “Nairs”.
Quotations
“Troops of Hyder had not encountered so brave and formidable an enemy before…their concealed fire from the forests that abound the country could not be returned with effect nor could Hyder’s troops be persuaded to enter thickets and engage in hand to hand combat with them…” ----------Wilks, 1817
“Hyder’s provincial troops, whose escape (in 1768) would otherwise have been impracticable, not only retreated in safety, but loaded with treasure – willing contribution of chiefs of Malabar-the purchase of a dream of independence.”---------------Wilks, 1817
“My country of 20 lakhs of rupees of revenue (Malabar) is entirely ruined, and I cannot get the same increased.” -----Hyder Ali, 1780
“From the period of conquest until this day, during twenty four years, you have been a turbulent and refractory people, and in the wars waged during your rainy season, you have caused numbers of our warriors taste the draught of martyrdom” ------------Tipu, 1789
“There cannot be slightest or remotest doubt of your being all bastards and sons of whores.” -------Tipu, 1789
“This is seventh time that you have acted treasonably toward the Sirkar, and plundered our armies.”----------Tipu, 1789
“The acquisition of Malabar....however valuable, was a very troublesome one. Tippoo and his father had sacrificed army after army in the fruitless attempt to subjugate the Rajahs of that warlike country. The military tribe of Nair is very numerous; and such was their high spirit, that the idea of subjugation or dependence of any sort was indignantly spurned."
"The struggles of these desperate people evinced the military excellence of the material of which they were composed. It was a most harassing warfare; from its remoteness, carried on without éclat; from its nature, apparently without system; and from its results, long without much appearance of success.”''------------John Philippart, 1823
"Harassed Nairs retreated into jungles from where they engaged themselves in guerrilla warfare against Tipu's forces. The resistance movement so organized by Nairs of Malabar had few parallels in the history of country"-------A. Sreedhara Menon, 1987
List of Twenty One Major Battles
Below is list of twenty one major battles which are either fought between "Nair" rebels and Mysore troops or those battles in which "Nair" involvement proved decisive on outcome.
Battles ---------- Year ---------- Outcome
• Battle of Kadathanad ---------- 1766 ---------- Mysore victory
• Battle of “Tamelpally” ---------- 1766 ---------- Successful rebel breakout
• Siege of Ponnani ---------- 1766 ---------- Near rebel victory
• Battle of Puthiyangadi ---------- 1766 ---------- Mysore victory
• Battle of Kottayampoil ---------- 1766 ---------- Rebel victory
• Blockade of Tellicherry ---------- 1778 ---------- Rebel victory
• First Battle of Nittur ---------- 1778 ---------- Rebel Victory
• Second Battle of Nittur ---------- 1779 ---------- Mysore victory
• Battle of Kalpetta ---------- 1779 ---------- Rebel victory
• Siege of Tellicherry ---------- 1779-82 ---------- Rebel victory
• Siege of Palghat ---------- 1782 ---------- Rebel victory
• Battles of Nileshwaram ---------- 1785–86 ---------- Rebel victory
• First Battle of Calicut ---------- 1788 ---------- Rebel victory
• Second Battle of Calicut---------- 1788 ---------- Mysore victory
• Battle of Trikai Hill ---------- 1789 ---------- Rebel victory
• Battle of Kuttipuram ---------- 1789 ---------- Mysore victory
• Battle of Tirurangadi ---------- 1790 ---------- Rebel Victory
• Battle of Katirur ---------- 1790 ---------- Rebel Victory
• Siege of Cannanore ---------- 1790-91 ---------- Rebel Victory
• Siege of Palghat ---------- 1790-91 ---------- Rebel Victory
• Capture of Kuttiyadi ---------- 1791 ---------- Rebel Victory
Bibliography
- Francis Buchanan - Journey Through Countries of Mysore, Canara and Malabar
- Colonel Mark Wilks - Historical Sketches of South India
- Chronicle of Vella
- Meadows Taylor – A Tale of Mysore War
- CA Innes - Malabar
- Letters of Tipu Sultan
- Fra Bartolomeo -Voyage to East Indies
- Tellicherry Factory Records.
- John Philippart - East India Military Calendar Volume 1
- William Logan - Malabar Manual
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