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Revision as of 08:47, 3 May 2006 by Karl Meier (talk | contribs) (rv anon)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)Muhammad (c.570-632) the prophet of Islam, was, amongst other things, a warrior during the last ten years of his life.
Muhammad's last ten years
Muhammad spent his last ten years, from 613 to 622 teaching Islam in Medina. The last two years of his life were spent subduing the other tribes and cities of the Arabian peninsula. He was, in essence, the ruler of Arabia at the time of his death.
Some Muslims have argued that by consulting the sirah, or biographical work, of early writers such as Ibn Ishaq, Al-Tabari, and Ibn Hisham, it is possible to reconstruct a casualty figure of well under one thousand persons during the campaigns of Muhammad. Critics dismiss this as special pleading based on late and incomplete evidence.
Of those who died in the early wars, several hundred were the men of one of Medina's Jewish tribes. They were accused of planning to betray, or betraying, the Muslims of Medina to an army from Mecca. As soon as the Meccans were repelled, at the Battle of the Trench, the Muslims turned against the Banu Qurayza. The Qurayza eventually surrendered and agreed that their fate should be decided by an arbitrator. They gave their assent to the proposed arbitrator, who surprised them by judging that all the adult males of the tribe should be put to death. This was done. Some say that Muhammad should have intervened in the cause of mercy, others that he bears no blame in this matter.
The Rules of War
As with any Islamic law, the rules of war are derived from the primary source, the Qur'an, and the secondary source, the hadith, or collected oral traditions. Sunni and Shi'a Muslims accept different hadith as authoritative.
Relevant Qur'anic verses
Translation by Yusuf Ali
- On that account: We ordained for the Children of Israel that if any one slew a person - unless it be for murder or for spreading mischief in the land - it would be as if he slew the whole people: and if any one saved a life, it would be as if he saved the life of the whole people. Then although there came to them Our messengers with clear signs, yet, even after that, many of them continued to commit excesses in the land. (5:32)
- Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but do not transgress limits; for Allah loveth not transgressors.
- And slay them wherever ye catch them, and turn them out from where they have Turned you out; for tumult and oppression are worse than slaughter; but fight them not at the Sacred Mosque, unless they (first) fight you there; but if they fight you, slay them. Such is the reward of those who suppress faith.
- But if they cease, Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful
- And fight them on until there is no more Tumult or oppression, and there prevail justice and faith in Allah; but if they cease, Let there be no hostility except to those who practise oppression.
- They but wish that ye should reject Faith, as they do, and thus be on the same footing (as they): But take not friends from their ranks until they flee in the way of Allah (From what is forbidden). But if they turn renegades, seize them and slay them wherever ye find them; and (in any case) take no friends or helpers from their ranks;
- Except those who join a group between whom and you there is a treaty (of peace), or those who approach you with hearts restraining them from fighting you as well as fighting their own people. If Allah had pleased, He could have given them power over you, and they would have fought you: Therefore if they withdraw from you but fight you not, and (instead) send you (Guarantees of) peace, then Allah Hath opened no way for you (to war against them).
- You will find others who desire that they should be safe from you and secure from their own people; as often as they are sent back to the mischief they get thrown into it headlong; therefore if they do not withdraw from you, and (do not) offer you peace and restrain their hands, then seize them and kill them wherever you find them; and against these We have given you a clear authority.
- Against them make ready your strength to the utmost of your power, including steeds of war, to strike terror into (the hearts of) the enemies, of Allah and your enemies, and others besides, whom ye may not know, but whom Allah doth know. Whatever ye shall spend in the cause of Allah, shall be repaid unto you, and ye shall not be treated unjustly. '
- But if the enemy incline towards peace, do thou (also) incline towards peace, and trust in Allah: for He is One that heareth and knoweth (all things).
- O ye who believe! When ye go abroad in the cause of Allah, investigate carefully, and say not to any one who offers you a salutation: "Thou art none of a believer!" Coveting the perishable goods of this life: with Allah are profits and spoils abundant. Even thus were ye yourselves before, till Allah conferred on you His favours: Therefore carefully investigate. For Allah is well aware of all that ye do.
- Nor take life - which Allah has made sacred - except for just cause. And if anyone is slain wrongfully, we have given his heir authority (to demand qisas or to forgive): but let him not exceed bounds in the matter of taking life; for he is helped (by the Law).
- Let there be no compulsion in religion: Truth stands out clear from Error: whoever rejects evil and believes in Allah hath grasped the most trustworthy hand-hold, that never breaks. And Allah heareth and knoweth all things.
- But when the forbidden months are past, then fight and slay the Pagans wherever ye find them, an seize them, beleaguer them, and lie in wait for them in every stratagem (of war); but if they repent, and establish regular prayers and practise regular charity, then open the way for them: for Allah is Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful.
- Say, "The truth is from your Lord": Let him who will believe, and let him who will, reject (it): for the wrong-doers We have prepared a Fire whose (smoke and flames), like the walls and roof of a tent, will hem them in: if they implore relief they will be granted water like melted brass, that will scald their faces, how dreadful the drink! How uncomfortable a couch to recline on!
- Fight those who believe not in Allah nor the Last Day, nor hold that forbidden which hath been forbidden by Allah and His Messenger, nor acknowledge the religion of Truth, (even if they are) of the People of the Book, until they pay the Jizya with willing submission, and feel themselves subdued.
Hadith
Hadith accepted by the Sunni
Muhammad is reputed to have said:
- "You are neither hard-hearted nor of fierce character, nor one who shouts in the markets. You do not return evil for evil, but excuse and forgive." (Bukhari, Volume 6, Book 60, Number 362)
- "Do not kill any old person, any child or any woman" (Abu Dawud)
- "Do not kill the monks in monasteries" or "Do not kill the people who are sitting in places of worship". (Musnad of Ibn Hanbal)
Sunnis believe that one of the most general and encompassing rules of warfare in Islam was given by Abu Bakr to an Islamic army set out for Syria. Abu Bakr was Muhammad's first successor and is considered by Sunnis to have been his closest friend.
Abu Bakr is reputed to have said:
- "Stop, O people, that I may give you ten rules for your guidance in the battlefield. Do not commit treachery or deviate from the right path. You must not mutilate dead bodies. Neither kill a child, nor a woman, nor an aged man. Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire, especially those which are fruitful. Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food. You are likely to pass by people who have devoted their lives to monastic services; leave them alone."
Hadith accepted by the Shi'a
Muhammad is reputed to have said:
- "Allah has cursed he who kills one who does not fight him, or strikes one who does not strike him." (related by Imam 'Ali al-Ridha, the 8th Shi'a Imam)
- "Go in the name of Allah, and in the way of Allah and according to the creed of the Messenger of Allah. Do not handcuff or tie up (prisoners) and do not mutilate (even the dead) and do not use treacherous means and do not kill old men or children or women. Do not cut down trees unless you are forced to do so. If any Muslim man, be he lowly or lofty, should look towards one of the Polytheists, then he should give him sanctuary so that he might hear the words of Allah. If he follows you, then he is your brother in faith, and if he refuses, then grant him sanctuary and seek succour in Allah." (related by Imam Ja'far al-Sādiq, the 6th Shi'a Imam)
- "He who joins up with those who are not his rightful allies will have the curse of Allah upon him. He who denies the labourer his rightful wage will have the curse of Allah upon him. He who commits a crime or aids a criminal will have the curse of Allah upon him... O' 'Ali, the worst of people in the sight of Allah is the killer of one who does not fight him, or he who beats one who does not beat him, or he who gives allegiance to other than his rightful allies. They have committed kufr (non-belief) in what Allah, Almighty is He, has sent down." (related by Imam Ja'far al-Sādiq, the 6th Shi'a Imam)
Imam Ali ibn Abi Talib is reputed to have said:
- "Do not fight the people until they initiate fighting for then by the grace of Allah, you will have the justification, and leaving them until they initiate fighting is yet another justification. Then if you defeat them, do not kill one who is fleeing, and do not finish off the wounded or expose nakedness or mutilate the dead." (related by 'Abdullah ibn Jondab, the son of Imam 'Ali)
- "Do not pursue those retreating, nor one who throws down his weapon, and do not kill the wounded. For these people are retreating and they have no troop to resort to. This what the Sunnah commended when fighting the trespassers." (related by Salam)
Criticisms
Muhammad's critics often hold that the Muslims engaged in wars of aggression, that they caused much bloodshed and suffering, that they imposed Islam at the point of a sword, and that Muhammad's conduct is not an example to be imitated.
Muslims respond by asserting that the Muslims fought only when attacked, or in the context of a wider war of self-defense. They argue that Muhammad was the first among the major military figures of history to lay down rules for humane warfare, and that he was scrupulous in limiting the loss of life as much as possible.
Some Muslims have argued that by consulting the sirah, or biographical work, of early writers such as Ibn Ishaq, Al-Tabari, and Ibn Hisham, it is possible to reconstruct a casualty figure of well under one thousand persons during the campaigns of Muhammad.
For an extended argument regarding Islamic warfare, see jihad as warfare.
See also
External links
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