Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Rumpelstiltskin223 (talk | contribs) at 08:49, 19 January 2007 (rv. This may sound a bit heartless, but the deaths of only five people are not important enough to belong in the main article. Inclusion in Caste related violence in India is fine.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

The Indian caste system is the traditional system of social division in the Indian Subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by a number of endogamous groups often termed as Jātis. The Castes (Sanskrit: Gyati ज्ञाति , Hindi: Biradari बिरादरी, samaj समाज, jati जाति etc , Urdu Zat ज़ात ) are hereditary, endogamous system, social classes or subclasses. Within a caste there exist exogamous groups known as gotras (Sanskrit: गोत्र).

Though the Indian caste system is historically linked to Hinduism, it is also followed by Muslims, Sikhs and Christians in the subcontinent. Normative Hindu scriptures such as the Vedas do not allude to a caste system, which was presumed to be codified in the Manusmriti. European colonialists regarded the Manusmriti as the "law book" of the Hindus and thus concluded that the caste system is a part of Hinduism, an assertion that is rejected by many religious scholars of Hinduism, who contend that it is an anachronistic social practice, not a religious one Although the Hindu scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the Varna system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the religion, and both sides in the debate can find scriptural support for their views. The most ancient scriptures—the Shruti or Vedas—place little emphasis on the caste system, mentioning it rarely and in a cursory manner. In the Vedic Era, there apparently was no prohibition against the Shudras (which later became an ensemble of the so-called low-castes) hearing the sacred words of the Vedas or participating in any religious rite, as was the case in the later times.

The Indian Constitution has formally outlawed the caste system. The caste system is gradually declining, especially in urban areas and in the public sphere where it is all but nonexistent. However, it is still a major part of Indian societal structure in the private sphere, and caste practices are strongly adhered to in the rural areas.

There are now several thousand castes and subcastes in India, for example Agarwal, Chamar, Jat, Kapu, Nair, Konkanasth, Mahar, Abbas, Chandraseniya Kayastha Prabhu (CKP), Reddy, Arora, Maratha, Saraswat Brahmins, Mudaliar, Barnwal etc. A caste is defined by the mutual interaction among the members of the caste. The two most common bonds are:

1. "Roti" (bread): dining together.
2. "Beti" (daughter): intermarrying together.

In the past some individuals were excommunicated out of the caste (thus becoming an "outcaste") if they committed some unpardonable offences. They were denied the privilege of mingling socially with the rest of their former caste.

Varna and jati

Indian classes are called varna, literally, "kind", and are sometimes referred to as "castes" in English. There were four major varnas in Indian society according to classical texts (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra) arranged in a hierarchy, with the former untouchables (Dalit) being considered either the lower section of Shudras or outside the caste system altogether.

Regionally the caste system is more complex, with many more sub-castes (occupational groups practicing endogamy in a particular region) and other divisions within each of the four pan-Indian castes or Varna.

Mixed in with the varna caste system was the jati sub-caste system. The jati was effectively a system similar to guilds, and was associated with occupation. As the varnas gave structure to society, the jati gave structure to each varna.

Unlike the varna system which required spiritual purity in order to ascend, jati could originally be changed with occupation within a varna. Marriages would be arranged usually within one's varna, but sometimes between jati sub-castes. Over time this grew more and more rigid until every aspect thereof was determined by birth, with various "justifications" as featured below.

Some castes are based on occupation. For example, as a general rule goldsmiths, carpenters and barbers form separate castes.

Most castes with a significant number of members are divided into subcastes. The subcastes could arise because of these reasons:

• Geographical separation: For example purabia (eastern) or pachchaia (western) sections of some castes
• Variation in standards of conduct: For example, disagreements over the permissability of widow marriages caused some castes to subdivide.

In several cases, merging of subcastes have been recorded.

At one time there was considerable interest in relative ranking of castes. There are several ways ranking can be done.

1. By public reputation of castes in a region
2. By wealth and influence
3. Food relationship: Members of a lower caste A will accept water-based (kachcha) food prepared by members of a higher caste B.

A consequence of the 3rd rule was that Brahmins were often employed as cooks. The rule was often not applicable if the food items are dry (e.g. roasted grains) or cooked with oil/ghee (pakka).

Major Caste Groups

These are the major caste groups in India, listed in the order of population, based on 1891 census data.

There have been many attempts to group castes by assigning them to one of the four varna, however the assignments vary depending on who is making the assignments.

Megasthenes, the Greek ambassador to Chandragupta Maurya's court in India classified people of India into seven classes: philosophers, peasants, herdsmen, craftsmen and traders, soldiers, government officials and councilors.

Individuals have been known to be excommunicated out of the caste for egregious offenses. They were then denied the privilege of mingling socially with the rest of their former caste.

History

Some researchers believe that the caste system began with the Indo-Aryan migration to India. However, the theory of Indo-Aryan migration itself is a highly disputed topic. The critics claim that it was formulated to undermine the historical significance of India, and was exploited by the British to show that they had the right to invade India, as the Indians supposedly themselves were invaders.

Although many Hindu scriptures contain passages that can be interpreted to sanction the caste system, they also contain indications that the caste system is not an essential part of the Hindu religion. The Vedas place very little importance on the caste system, mentioning caste only rarely and in a cursory manner. In the Vedic period, there also seems to be no discrimination against the Shudras (which later became an ensemble of the so-called low-castes). Later scriptures such as Bhagavad Gita and Manusmriti state that the four varnas are created by God. A varna is a division of the society that consists of many sub-castes or Jātis. Manusmriti and some other shastras mention four varnas: The Brahmins (teachers, scholars and priests), the Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), the Vaishyas (traders, landowners and some artisan groups), and Shudras (agriculturists, service providers, and some artisan groups). Another group of untouchables excluded from the main society was called Parjanya or Antyaja.

Passages from these scriptures suggest that the caste system was originally non-hereditary: Template:Quoter

According to the Manusmriti, every caste belongs to one of the four varnas. However, there have been many disputes about the varna of many castes, such as castes being considered Kshatriya by some scholars, while described as Shudra by others. While texts such as the Manusmriti attempted to rationalize ambiguous castes by placing them in varna-sankaras (i.e. mixed varna), the fact remains that Indian society was, and is, composed of numerous geographically diversified but endogamous groups. With many occupational groups practicing endogamy within a particular region, as well as numerous sub-divisions within the four main castes, a more complex system of subcastes and jātis is evident. The jatis have broken up into clans like Agarwal, Iyer, Kayastha etc.

The status of Untouchables

The untouchables (now called Dalits) in Hindu society were the people who worked in what were seen as unhealthy, disgusting or polluting jobs. Untouchables used to live separately within a subcultural context of their own, outside the inhabited limits of villages and townships, made pariahs in every sense of the word. No other castes could, or would, interfere with their social life since untouchables were lower in social ranking than even those of the shudras.

In the past, the Dalits suffered from social restrictions in addition to extreme poverty. They were not allowed temple worship with others, nor water from the same sources. Person of higher castes would not interact with them. Untouchables were not allowed to use the same wells as the other castes as that would "pollute" the water and indirectly the other castes who drank it. If somehow a member of a higher caste came into physical or social contact with an untouchable, the member of the higher caste was defiled, and had to bathe thoroughly to purge her/himself of the impurity. Such contact even included the shadow of an untouchable falling on the member of the higher caste. At the same time, the untouchables developed their own rich folk traditions with a lifestyle that was unhampered by the variety of restrictions on the rest of the society.

The inclusion of so-called untouchables into the mainstream was argued for by many social reformers. Mahatma Gandhi called them "Harijans" (people of God). The term Dalit (downtrodden) is used now as the term Harijan is largely felt patronising. Gandhi's contribution toward the emancipation of the untouchables is controversial. This is usually highlighted by the commentary of his contemporary Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, an untouchable himself. Ambedkar was deeply suspicious of Gandhi's motivations and frequently saw his activities as detrimental to the cause of upliftment of his people. For instance, Gandhi, a Vaishya, was not against the caste system , but tried hard to bring untouchables into the mainstream of society and get the other castes to discard the practice of untouchability. Ambedkar, influenced by liberal thinkers like Voltaire, was interested in the elimination of the caste system and untouchability altogether. To him, Gandhi's efforts solved no problems of the untouchables as they would remain at the bottom of the hierarchy. Ambedkar suggested that the evils of the caste system would be eliminated if the upper castes (especially the Brahmins) would change their behaviour and eventually get rid of the caste system altogether.

Even among Dalits, there's discrimination. The social status of Dalit sub-castes such as Bhangi has long been a source of contention within Indian society. Upper sub-castes among Dalits like dhobi, nai etc. do not intearct with Bhangis, the lowest order among the dalits. They are called untouchable among the untouchables. This is an example of deep set roots of caste system in the Indian psyche.

The practice of untouchability has been formally outlawed by the Constitution of India, and has declined heavily in independent India. K. R. Narayanan, who became the President of India in 1997 and K. G. Balakrishnan who is the presnt Chief Justice of India belong the castes considered as untouchable castes.

Modern status of the caste system

The Indian caste system is gradually relaxing, especially in metropolitan and other major urban areas, due to higher penetration of high education, co-existence of all communities and lesser knowledge about caste system due to alienation with rural roots of people. But in the countryside and small towns, this system is still very rigid. However, the total elimination of caste system seems distant, if ever possible, due to caste politics.

The Government of India has officially documented castes and subcastes, primarily to determine those deserving reservation (positive discrimination in education and jobs) through the census. The Indian reservation system relies entirely on quotas. The Government lists consist of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward Classes:

Scheduled castes (SC)

Scheduled castes generally consist of former "untouchables" (the term "Dalit" is now preferred). Present population is 16% of total population of India i.e. around 160 million. For example, the Delhi state has 49 castes listed as SC.

Scheduled tribes (ST)

Scheduled tribes generally consist of tribal groups. Present population is 7% of total population of India i.e. around 70 million.

Other Backward Classes (OBC)

The Mandal Commission covered more than 3000 castes under OBC Category and stated that OBCs form around 52% of the Indian population. However, the National Sample Survey puts the figure at 32%.. There is substantial debate over the exact number of OBCs in India. It is generally estimated to be sizable, but many believe that it is lower than the figures quoted by either the Mandal Commission and the National Sample Survey

The caste-based reservations in India have led to wide-spread protests, with many complaining of reverse discrimination against the forward castes.

Though inter-caste marriages are now quite common in India, many Indians consider caste a major criteria for matrimonial choices. Almost all Indian matrimonial websites and matrimonial columns in Indian newspapers contain caste-based categories.

Caste System among non-Hindus

In some parts of India, the Christians are stratified by sect, location, and the castes of their predecessors. Presently in India, more than 70% of Christians are Dalits, but the higher caste Christians (30% by estimates) control 90% of the churches administrative jobs . Out of the 156 bishops, only 6 are from lower castesCite error: A <ref> tag is missing the closing </ref> (see the help page).. Many Dalit Catholics have spoken out against discrimination against them by the Catholic Church.

Despite Islam's egalitarian tenets, units of social stratification, termed as "castes" by many, have developed among Muslims in some parts of South Asia. Various theories have been put forward regarding the development of castes among Indian muslims. Some sources state that the castes among Muslims developed as the result of close contact with Hindu culture and Hindu converts to Islam, while others feel that these developed based on the claims of descent from the prophet Mohamed.

Ashrafs have a superior status derived from their foreign ancestry, while the Ajlafs are assumed to be converts from Hinduism, and have a lower status. In addition, there is also the Arzal caste among Muslims, who were regarded by anti-caste activists like Babasaheb Ambedkar as the equivalent of untouchables. In the Bengal region of India, some Muslims also stratify their society according to 'Quoms'. While some scholars have asserted that the Muslim Castes are not as acute in their discrimination as that among Hindus, Ambedkar argued otherwise, writing that the social evils in Muslim society were "worse than those seen in hindu society".

Caste-related violence

Independent India has witnessed considerable amount of violence and hate crimes motivated by caste. Ranvir Sena, a caste-supremacist fringe paramilitary group based in Bihar has committed violent acts against Dalits and other members of the scheduled caste community. Phoolan Devi, a bandit-turned-politician belonging to Mallah lower-caste was mistreated and raped by upper-caste Thakurs. She turned a bandit and carried out violent robberies against upper-caste people. In 1981, her gang massacred twenty-two Thakurs, most of whom were not involved in her kidnapping or rape.

Over the years, various incidents of violence against Dalits, such as Kherlanji Massacre have been reported from many parts of India. At the same time, many violent protests by Dalits, such as the 2006 Dalit protests in Maharashtra, have been reported as well.

Caste politics

Mahatma Gandhi, B. R. Ambedkar and Jawaharlal Nehru had radically different approaches to caste esp. over constitutional politics and the status of "untouchables". Till the mid-1970s, the politics of independent India was largely dominated by economic issues and questions of corruption. But since 1980s, caste has emerged as a major issue in the Politics of India.

The Mandal Commission was established in 1979 to "identify the socially or educationally backward", and to consider the question of seat reservations and quotas for people to redress caste discrimination. In 1980, the commission's report affirmed the affirmative action practice under Indian law whereby members of lower castes were given exclusive access to a certain portion of government jobs and slots in public universities. When V. P. Singh Government tried to implement the recommendations of Mandal Commission in 1989, massive protests were held in the country. Many alleged that the politicians were trying to cash on caste-based reservations for purely pragmatic electoral purposes.

Many political parties in India have openly indulged in caste-based votebank politics. Parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), the Samajwadi Party and the Janata Dal claim that they are representing the backward castes, and rely primarily on OBC support, often in alliance with Dalit and Muslim support to win the elections.

Criticism

There has been strong criticism of the caste system, both within and outside India. Criticism of the Caste system in Hindu society came both from the Hindu fold and from without. In many cases, anti-Hindus have exploited the controversy to rake up prejudices against Hindus and Hindu culture. Typically, radical elements of other religions rake up caste issues to delegitimize the right of Hindus to practice their faith.

Historical Criticism

Gautama Buddha and Mahavira, the founders of Buddhism and Jainism respectively, were against any kind of caste structure. Many bhakti period saints such as Kabir, Dnyaneshwar, Eknath, Ramananda, Ramanuja and Tukaram rejected all caste-based discrimination and accepted disciples from all the castes. Many Hindu reformers such as Swami Vivekananda and Sathya Sai Baba believe that there is no place for the caste system in Hinduism.The 15th century saint Ramananda also accepted all castes, including untouchables, into his fold. Most of these saints subscribed to the Bhakti movements in Hinduism during the medieval period that rejected casteism.Nandanar, a low-caste Hindu cleric, also rejected casteism and accepted Dalits.

Some other movements in Hinduism have also welcomed lower-castes into their fold, the earliest being the Bhakti movements of the medieval period. Early Dalit politics involved many Hindu reform movements which arose primarily as a reaction to the advent of Christian Missionaries in India and their attempts to mass-convert Dalits to Christianity under the allure of escaping the caste system (however, the Caste system among Indian Christians remained in full force even after conversions).

In the 19th Century, the Brahmo Samaj under Raja Ram Mohan Roy, actively campaigned against untouchability and Casteism. The Arya Samaj founded by Swami Dayanand also renounced discrimination against Dalits.Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa founded the Ramakrishna Mission that participated in the emancipation of Dalits. Upper caste Hindus, such as Mannathu Padmanabhan also participated in movements to abolish Untouchability against Dalits, opening his family temple for Dalits to worship.While there always have been places for Dalits to worship, the first "upper-caste" temple to openly welcome Dalits into their fold was the Laxminarayan Temple in Wardha in the year 1928 (the move was spearheaded by reformer Jamnalal Bajaj). Also, the Satnami movement was founded by Guru Ghasidas a Dalit himself.

The caste system has also been criticized by many Indian social reformers. Some reformers, such as Mahatma Jyotirao Phule and Iyothee Thass argued that the lower caste people were the original inhabitants of India, and were conquered in the ancient past by Brahman invaders. Mahatma Gandhi coined the term "Harijan", a euphemistic word for untouchable, literally meaning Sons of God. B. R. Ambedkar, born in Hindu Dalit community, was a heavy critic of the caste system. He pioneered the Dalit Buddhist movement in India, and asked his followers to leave Hinduism, and convert to Buddhism.India's first Prime Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, based on his own relationship with Dalit reformer Ambedkar, also spread information about the dire need to eradicate untouchability for the benefit of the Dalit community.Another example was the Temple Entry Proclamation issued by the last Maharaja of Travancore in the Indian state of Kerala in the year 1936. The Maharaja proclaimed that "outcastes should not be denied the consolations and the solace of the Hindu faith". Even today, the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple that first welcomed Dalits in the state of Kerala is revered by the Dalit Hindu community.

A prominent example of personalities exploiting the Caste system to spread prejudices against Hindus was Periyar Ramasami, a Tamil rationalist, who claimed to fight against the caste practice of Brahmins but was regarded as Anti-Hindu.Ambedkar was also regarded as an Anti-Hindu by some of the more orthodox elements of society but his supporters argue that he was not against Hindus per se, but against the orthodoxy of the Hindu Caste system (as evidenced by his not singling out Hindus for criticism but attacking the Caste system among South Asian Muslims as well).

Contemporary Criticism

The caste system has been often used to criticize Hinduism and India, in general. Often, the criticism decays into anti-Hindu prejudices. Kancha Ilaiah, a professor at Osmania University is known for his polemical attacks on Hindus and the caste system and is considered an anti-Hindu by his critics.Similarly,radicals such as Udit Raj have attacked Hindus in polemical speeches has achieved some popularity among evangelical Christian groups such as the Dalit Freedom Network in their attacks on Hindus.Christian Missionaries of the fundamentalist persuasion often employ such tactics to convert Hindus to their fold. The website Dalitstan (presently taken down), once banned by the Indian government, is an example of anti-Brahmin and anti-Hindu rhetoric by Dalit extremists, allegedly supported by Christian missions.

Many Hindus point out that the caste system is related to the Indian society, and not Hinduism (as is evident by presence of caste among Indian Christians and Muslims). Hindu Nationalist organizations such as the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh have actively criticized the caste system.

Some activists consider that the caste system is a form of racial discrimination. The participants of the United Nations Conference Against Racism in Durban, South Africa in March 2001, condemned the discrimination due to the caste system, and stated that caste as a basis for the segregation and oppression of peoples in terms of their descent and occupation is a form of apartheid..

This allegation has been rejected by many sociologists such as Andre Béteille, who writes that treating caste as a form of racism is "politically mischevious" and worse, "scientifically nonsense" since there is no discernable difference in the racial characteristics between Brahmins and Scheduled Castes. He writes that "Every social group cannot be regarded as a race simply because we want to protect it against prejudice and discrimination".

The Indian government denies the claims of equivalency between Caste and Racial discrimination, pointing out that the caste issues as essentially intra-racial and intra-cultural. Indian Attorney General Soli Sorabjee insisted that "The only reason India wants caste discrimination kept off the agenda is that it will distract participants from the main topic: racism. Caste discrimination in India is undeniable but caste and race are entirely distinct.".. Many scholars dispute the claim that casteism is akin to racism.The view of the caste system as "static and unchanging" has been disputed. Sociologists describe how the perception of the caste system as a static and textual stratification has given way to the perception of the caste system as a more processual, emprical and contextual stratification. Others have applied theoretical models to explain mobility and flexibility in the caste system in India.. According to these scholars, groups of lower-caste individuals could seek to elevate the status of their caste by attempting to emulate the practices of higher castes.

Sociologist M. N. Srinivas has also debated the question of rigidity in Caste. For details see sanskritization.

In India, some observers felt that the caste system must be viewed as a system of exploitation of poor low-ranking groups by more prosperous high-ranking groups. In many parts of India, land is largely held by dominant castes high-ranking owners of property that economically exploit low-ranking landless labourers and poor artisans, all the while degrading them with ritual emphases on their so-called god-given inferior status.

Matt Cherry, claims that karma underpins the caste system, and the caste system traditionally determines the position and role of every member of Hindu society. Caste determines an individual's place in society, the work he or she may carry out, and who he or she may marry and meet. According to him, Hindus believe that the karma of previous life will determine the caste an individual will be (re)born into.

References

1. Francis Buchanan, Indian Census Record, 1883
2. Alex Michaels, Hinduism: Past and Present 188-97 (Princeton 2004) ISBN 0-691-08953-1
3. Caste System View of Scholars
4. White Yajurveda 26.2
5. "Caste System as a Social Order". Retrieved 2006-12-08.
6. Michael Bamshad; et al. (June). "Genetic evidence on the origins of Indian caste populations" (PDF). Genome Research. 11(6):994-1004. Retrieved 2006-12-08. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |quotes= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
7. Stephen Knapp. "Death of the Aryan Invasion Theory". Retrieved 2006-12-08.
8. David Frawley. "Solid Evidence Debunking Aryan Invasion". Retrieved 2006-12-08.
9. Elst, Koenraad. The saffron swastika: The notion of "Hindu fascism". Voice of India. ISBN 8185990697.
10. White Yajurveda 26.2
11. Hell’s Angels, Himal Magazine
12. List of Scheduled Castes Delhi Govt.
13. Reply to SC daunting task for government, Tribune India
14. What is India's population of other backward classes?,Yahoo News
15. Vikas Kamat. "India's Arranged Marriages". Retrieved 2006-12-12.
16. Christian Castes Encyclopedia Britannica
17. Problems and Struggles Dalitchristians.com
18. A palmyra leaf that sears us, The Hindu
19. ^ "Islamic caste." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 18 Oct. 2006
20. ^ Burton-Page, J. "Hindū." Encyclopaedia of Islam. Edited by: P. Bearman, Th. Bianquis, C.E. Bosworth, E. van Donzeland W.P. Heinrichs. Brill, 2006. Brill Online.
21. Muslim Caste in Uttar Pradesh (A Study of Culture Contact), Ghaus Ansari, Lucknow, 1960, Page 66
22. ^ Singh Sikand, Yoginder. "Caste in Indian Muslim Society". Hamdard University. Retrieved 2006-10-18.
23. Sajida Sultana Alvi, Advice on the art of governance, an Indo-Islamic Mirror for Princes P122, State University of New York Press, ISBN 0-88706-918-5
24. Ahmad, Imtiaz, "The Ashraf-Ajlaf dichotomy in Muslim social structure in India", Indian economic and social history review 33 (1966) pgs 268-78
25. Aggarwal, Patrap (1978). Caste and Social Stratification Among Muslims in India. Manohar.
26. Social Stratification Among Muslims in Indiaby Zarina Bhatty
27. ^ Ambedkar, Bhimrao. Pakistan or the Partition of India. Thackers Publishers.
28. ^ Web resource for Pakistan or the Partition of India
29. Leach, Edmund Ronald (November 24, 1971). Aspects of Caste in South India, Ceylon and North-West Pakistan (Pg 113). Cambridge University Press.
30. Cite error: The named reference Muslim Communities was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
31. ^ Danny Yee. "Book review of Caste, Society and Politics in India: From the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age". Retrieved 2006-12-11. Cite error: The named reference "caste_aditya_nigam" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
32. Bhattacharya, Amit. ""Who are the OBCs?"". Retrieved 2006-04-19. Times of India, April 8, 2006.
33. "Caste-Based Parties". Country Studies US. Retrieved 2006-12-12.
34. India's caste system discriminates
35. Shaivam.org
36. ^ An Untouchable Subject?
37. Final Declaration of the Global Conference Against Racism and Caste-based Discrimination
38. Discrimination that must be cast away,The Hindu
39. James Silverberg (Nov 1969). "Social Mobility in the Caste System in India: An Interdisciplinary Symposium". The American Journal of Sociology. 75 (3): 443–444. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
40. Srinivas, M.N, Religion and Society among the Coorgs of South India by MN Srinivas, Page 32 (Oxford, 1952)
41. Caste in Modern India; And other essays: Page 48. (Media Promoters & Publishers Pvt. Ltd, Bombay; First Published: 1962, 11th Reprint: 1994)
42. India - A Country Study, USA Library of Congress, 1995, Chapter 5
43. Matt Cherry, "Humanism In India", Free Inquiry magazine, Vol 16 Num 4

See also

• The varna system
• Caste
• List of Indian castes
• Reservations in India
• Lower-caste Hindu saints
• List of lower-caste Indian warriors

Further reading

See also: References

• Ambedkar, B.R. (1946). The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables? as reprinted in Volume 7 of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, published by Government of Maharashtra 1990; Complete Writings
• Ambedkar, B.R. (1946) Who were the Shudras
• Jervoise Athelstane Baines (1893). General report on the Census of India, 1891, London, Her Majesty's Stationery Office
• E.A.H. Blunt (1931). The Caste System of Northern India, republished 1964, S. Chand, Delhi.
• Crooke, William (1896). Tribes and Castes of the North-Western Provinces and Oudh, 4 vols.
• G.S. Ghurye (1961). Caste, Class and Occupation. Popular Book Depot, Bombay.
• G.S. Ghurye (1969). Caste and Race in India, Popular Prakashan, Mumbai 1969 (1932)
• Lal, K. S. Growth of Scheduled Tribes and Castes in Medieval India (1995)
• Russell, R.V. and R.B. Hira Lal (1916). The Tribes and Castes of the Central Provinces of India, 4 vols., London.
• Duiker/Spielvogel. The Essential World History Vol I: to 1800. 2nd Edition 2005
• Susan Bayly (2001), Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Paperback Edition, Cambridge University Press
• Louis Dumont. Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Complete English edition, revised. 540 p. 1970, 1980 Series: (Nature of Human Society)
• Christophe Jaffrelot (2003). India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes, C. Hurst & Co
• Kane, Pandurang Vaman: History of Dharmasastra: (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law) — Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1962-1975
• Murray Milner, Jr. (1994). Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press
• Ranganayakamma (2001). For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad : Sweet Home Publications

External links

• Caste prejudice has nothing to do with the Hindu scriptures - Guardian
• Jati system in India
• India Together on Caste
• The Caste System in India
• Annihilation of Caste with a Reply to Mahatma Gandhi Part I & Part II by Dr.B.R.Ambedkar
• Writings by Dr Ambedkar about Caste Online texts
• Caste and the Census
• Varna Ashram and Hindu Scriptures (pdf)
• Articles on Caste by Koenraad Elst: Caste in India, Buddhism and Caste, Indian tribals and Caste, Physical anthropology and Caste, Etymology of Varna
• Is Caste System Intrinsic to Hinduism?
• Hindu Caste System & Hinduism: Vedic vocations (Hindu castes) were not related to heredity (birth)
• ISKCON view of caste and behavior
• These documented Results of 4-Varn system can make you Proud of your Hindu heritage
• news on caste, communalism, and class struggle from the Anti-Caste Information Page
• The Indian Caste System and The British -Ethnographic Mapping and the Construction of the British Census in India
• Early Evidence for Caste in South India by George L. Hart, Berkeley

1. "Insert title here". Retrieved Insert accessdate here. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)

• Indian caste system
• Hindu law