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The Linux kernel has been marked by constant growth throughout its history. Since the initial release of its source code in 1991, it has grown from a small number of C Programming Language files under a license prohibiting commercial distribution to its current state of about 40 megabytes of source under the GNU General Public License.
Early history
Linus Torvalds began the development of Linux in 1991 in Helsinki. It was initially a terminal emulator which Torvalds used for access to the large UNIX servers at his university. He wrote the program in order to be independent of an operating system because he wanted to use the functions of his new PC (with an 80386 processor) optimally. The operating system that he used during development was Minix, and the initial compiler was the GNU C compiler — this is still the main choice for compiling Linux today (although Linux will compile under other compilers such as the Intel C Compiler).
As Torvalds wrote in his book Just for Fun, he eventually realized that he had written an operating system kernel. On 25 August 1991, he announced this system in a Usenet posting to the newsgroup "comp.os.minix.":
- "Hello everybody out there using minix -
- I'm doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won't be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I'd like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things).
- I've currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I'll get something practical within a few months, and I'd like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won't promise I'll implement them :-)
- Linus (torvalds@kruuna.helsinki.fi)
- PS. Yes – it's free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT portable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that's all I have :-(."
The name
Linus Torvalds had wanted to call his invention Freax, a portmanteau of "freak," "free," and "x," an allusion to Unix. During the start of his work on the system, he stored the files under the name "Freax" for about a half year. Torvalds had already considered the name "Linux," but initially dismissed it as too egotistical.
In order to give other people the ability to cooperate in the system or to suggest improvements, the files were placed on the ftp server (ftp.funet.fi) of the Helsinki University of Technology (HAT) in September 1991. Ari Lemmke, Torvald's coworker at the HAT who was responsible for the servers at the time, did not agree with the name Freax, preferring the name Linux. He simply named the files placed on the server "Linux" without consulting Torvalds. Later, however, he consented to "Linux": "After many arguments, he finally admitted that Linux was simply the better name. In the source code of version 0.01 of Linux, the name 'Freax' was still used in the makefile. Only later was the name Linux used. Thus the name actually not planned at all became generally accepted world-wide."
Linux under the GNU GPL
Torvalds first published Linux under its own license. He later decided however to use the GNU GPL license. The first version under the copyleft-license was after version 0.12 in January 1992 and the change of license was pronounce in the CHANGE log . In the middle of December 1992 he published version 0.99 using the GNU GPL.
That was the step that made it possible to develop Linux quickly and efficiently with the help of many other developers from around the world. Thus a growing community of developers created a kernel that was state of the art and competitive with proprietary systems.
Later, Torvalds said in an interview that the decision to place Linux under the GNU GPL was his best decision ever. “Making Linux GPL'd was definitely the best thing I ever did.”.
GNU/Linux
The designation Linux was used by Torvalds initially only for the Kernel initiated by it. The Kernel was ausgefliefert however frequently together with other software, before all that of the GNU project. This GNU variant became fast the usually used variant of GNU, since there was no other functioning free Kernel at this time. When in the course of the time the name Linux used oneself also frequently for these software collections, the founder of the GNU project, Richard Stallman, soon, tried to implement the name GNU/Linux in order to provide for the role of GNU a validity appropriate in its eyes . In June 1994 in the GNU' s bulletin with „free UNIX clone “to Linux was referred and in the same year gave the Debian project of its GNU/Linux distribution the name GNU/Linux. In expenditure for January 1995 of the GNU' s bulletin changed for reference to Linux to GNU/Linux. In May 1996 Richard Stallman published the editor Emacs 19,31, in which the type of system was renamed from Linux to Lignux. He meant, it would be appropriate, the terms Linux based for GNU system for using GNU/Linux system or Lignux in order to refer to the combination of Linux Kernel and GNU software. It gave however soon the expression up Lignux and used only GNU/Linux.
IInsgesamt encountered the demand different reactions. While the GNU project and the Debian project accepted the name, most developers and other Linux Distributoren rejected this or opposed clearly. This was justified on the one hand with comfort, because the name Linux was regarded as simpler, and on the other hand with the reference that meanwhile a considerable quantity of the software delivered with Linux does not originate from the GNU project.
A reason for being missing the term” GNU/Linux “is surely, the” Linux “a clearly simpler, griffigerer term is simple. The system simply” GNU “to call and the Kernel thereby under the table fall let, does not dare anybody. A further reason for the wide-spread use of the term” Linux “for the system probably is that Linus Torvalds had called it since the publication always 1992 Linux. Stallman however its demand announced after change of name only after the system had become already popular.
Official mascot
1996 announced Torvalds a Maskottchen for Linux, it should a penguin become. The conditions, which were placed against the Maskottchen, are among other things in Torvalds Biografie Just For Fun: „However Linus did not want an x-arbitrary penguin. Its penguin should look lucky, so as if it would have enjoyed degrees measure beer and would have had the best Sex of its life. “(Lit.: Torvalds, P. 151) Larry Ewing provided thereupon the original draft of the today well-known Maskottchens. James Hughes suggested the name Tux as derivative of Torvalds Unix. A further reason for this construction is probably also that the colors of the penguins obtain the impression, as if it a tuxedo would carry, which is called in English tuxedo.
New development
Kernel
As Linux Kernel responsible persons also Alan Cox and Marcelo Tosatti are very well-known beside Torvalds. Cox cared for to end of 2003 the Kernel row 2,2, Tosatti worried to in the middle of 2006 about the version 2.4 and Andrew Morton steers the development and administration of the new 2.6-Kernels, which was published on 18 December 2003 in one as stably (stable) available version. Also the older branches are still constantly improved.
The success of Linux in many areas of application is in particular on the characteristics of free software concerning stability, security, expandability and maintenance of leading back in addition, at the being void license costs.
Desktop Enviroments
With the graphic user surfaces such as KDE or GNOMES Linux within the range of the Desktops offers meanwhile a comparable comfort to Ms-Windows or Mac OS. Extensive tests of the environments on user friendliness and efficiency make possible a use of the computer without special knowledge. Techniques such as Xgl or AIGLX make possible in addition hardware-accelerated, graphic effects on the Desktop.
Apart from the increasing offer of proprietärer software for Linux first of all the Community constantly increased the software offer for Linux and into most different ranges expanded: With the time ever more free software projects developed, which reach from development environments over Businessanwendungen up to complex Multimediaanwendungen. The Windows API reproduction Wine makes it possible in addition to work with a constantly rising number of programs written for Windows also under Linux.
The distributions designed for the Desktop can complete computers be installed simply, become it in addition, increasingly also before-installed Linux delivered, which gives as single place system support to the spreading. Within the range with mass installations as in companies or authorities Linux made speeches by large-scale migrations e.g. in Munich or Vienna of itself. In addition, the success of a Desktopsystems is decided by the spreading by plays. Some new plays of the large play manufacturers come out also in Linuxversionen, then e.g. also ID Softwares grafiklastige plays Doom 3, Quake 4 as well as the parts of 1 to 3 of the Quake row is available for Linux.
Comunity
The largest part of the work to and around Linux is settled by the Community, thus by freiwillige coworker in the whole world. Or help directly employees programmers and developers supported this partial also of companies not only directly with the development of the Kernels, but also during the writing of the entire auxiliary software, which is available approximately for and around Linux.
It releases both those completely and organized projects and Debian, in addition, the projects connected directly with companies such as Fedora core and openSUSE. The members of the respective projects meet with different conferences and fairs, in order to exchange itself. One of the largest fairs is thereby the LinuxTag in Karlsruhe (starting from 2006 in Wiesbaden), with which annually more than 10,000 humans come together, in order to inform and exchange about Linux and the projects settled therefore.
Open Source Development Lab
The open SOURCE development lab (OSDL) in the year 2000 was created and is an independent and nonprofit organization, which pursues the goal of optimizing Linux for the employment in data centers and within the carrier range. It serves as gesponsorte working premises for Linus Torvalds and long time also for Andrew Morton, which changed however in the middle of 2006 to Google, in whose order it since on the Linux Kernel works. Torvalds worries on behalf the OSDL in full time about the development of the Linux Kernels. The not-commercial mechanism of considerable companies is financed as talks has, Novell, Mitsubishi, Intel, IBM, Dell and HP.
Companies
Meanwhile make a set of companies with Linux money. These companies, of which most are also members the open SOURCE development lab, invest partial substantial resources into the advancement and the development of Linux, in order to make it suited for different areas of application. This is enough from hardware donations at developers over drivers and cash donations for donations, which are occupied with Linux software, up to the employment of programmers at the company. Well-known examples of it are IBM and HP, which use Linux first of all on the own servers, and talk have, which maintain its own distribution. Likewise Trolltech Linux by the development and the GPL Lizenzierung of Qt, which makes the development of KDE only possible, supports and by the promotion of some x and KDE developers.
Controversy over Linux
Since beginning of the development there was again and again controversy over the system.
Andrew Tanenbaum
Linux is obsolete
1992 came it by a Usenet article Andrew S. Tanenbaums into the newsgroup comp.os.minix with the title Linux is obsolete to famous a debate become around the structure of the Linux Kernels, in which the recognized computer scientists and author of the Mikrokernel system Minix Tanenbaum attached a whole set of points of criticism at at that time still quite recent Linux project.
Above all he criticized the Design of the Kernels as monolithic and thus as old-fashioned the Portierbarkeit by utilization of all features of the Intel-386-Prozessoren, bad in its eyes liberals the distribution and development model of the software, without strict control of the source code by an individual person the installation of a set of features, which were in such a way useless from Tanenbaums view (it judged a file system, which permits the parallel access of several programs, when redundant performance chop)
Retrospectively one can say today that Tanenbaum with its prognosis, Linux is within fewer years become outdated and by (from its view) modern a GNU Hurd replaced, wrongly lay. Linux was portiert also on all important platforms. Liberal the development model led GNU Hurd to an unparalleled speed with the advancement, is not so far yet that one could use it on a server.
Book Samizdat
Years later Andrew Tanenbaum was brought again with Linux in connection. When Ken Brown its to today published book Samizdat wrote and spoke therefore with Tanenbaum, this, Torvalds explained of him had not copied. In its statement on Brown it wrote a section, which documented its relationship to Linux well: Naturally Torvalds knew his book and Minix.
- „But the code was his. The proof of this is that he messed the design up. MINIX is a nice, modular microkernel system Linus rewrote the whole thing as a big monolithic kernel, complete with inline assembly code :-(. The first version of Linux was like a time machine. It went back to a system worse than what he already had on his desk. Of course, he was just a kid and didn’t know better (although if he had paid better attention in class he should have), but producing a system that was fundamentally different from the base he started with seems pretty good proof that it was a redesign. I don’t think he could have copied UNIX because he didn’t have access to the UNIX source code, except maybe John Lions’ book, which is about an earlier version of UNIX that does not resemble Linux so much.“
Competitor of Microsoft
Although it did not interest Torvalds according to own statement whether Microsoft (manufacturer of the operating system Windows) came by Linux in the past into distress (1997-2001), became from both sides a hard competition delivered. The first time expressed itself this clearly, when at the end of of October 1998 the first Halloween document emerged. This document written by a Microsoft developer concerns itself in detail with the dangers of free software for Microsoft and points strategies out to meet these. In the paper brought by Eric S. Raymond to the public Linux was explicitly lit up.
At the beginning of of 2004 achieved the competition a new phase, when Microsoft published a set from studies given in order to the topic „Windows vs. Linux “under the name „GET the Facts “on its own web page. The studies should prove on the basis from inquiries, collections and investigations that the enterprise of Linux affects servers compared to Windows unfavorably.
The commercial offerers of Linux software strove thereupon, likewise by studies, inquiries and empiric reports to place of Microsoft campaign somewhat against. Thus Novell at the end of of 2004 switched its own web page under the title „the absolute truth “, on which the advantages and legal security are emphasized by Linux. With the fact it is remarkable that Novell refers with many statements explicitly to the studies published by Microsoft. Also IBM published a set of studies under the campaign title „The Linux RK IBM competitive advantage “, in order to answer to the campaign initiated by Microsoft. Talk has however started the campaign „Truth Happens “, which aims at, to apply contrary to Microsoft the products not with studies but the efficiency of the products themselves decide to let.
Most members of the Linux Community took however left and stichelten the topic with jokes like „Linux - and your PC makes never again blue “or „sooner or later migrates we to you “. Among other things also the magazine did not publish LinuxUser a completely seriously meant Review of Windows XP under the points of criticism of a typical Linux distribution.
In the autumn Novell announced 2006 and Microsoft however, in the future with the topics interoperability and patent protection to co-operate to want . In the context of the Virtualisierung was agreed upon to improve the exchange from Office documents to to simplify the Virtualisierung of the Enterprise solutions in each case under the competition product as well as the integration of Linux and Windows machines into a common directory structure to simplify. The patent protection planned at the same time that customers of an offerer for the use its software of in each case different the offerer may not be sued because of infringement of a patent. This patent protection was expanded also since non-commercial free software developers. The straight last step harvested also criticism, since it included only non-commercial developers with.
SCO
2003 raised the company SCO heavy reproaches against the world company IBM: According to the representation of SCO IBM Linuxentwickler code transferred invariably from UNIX and to Linux in-maintained. Since SCO for itself stresses copyrights at UNIX and sees in the behavior of IBM an injury of the own rights, an action was brought against IBM. At the same time SCO sells Linux licenses since the beginning of the procedure at users, who do not want to risk a possible complaint on the part of SCOs. In addition, copyright approximately around UNIX is not clarified: Since Novell likewise stresses this for itself, it opened a procedure against SCO.
A chronological listing of the events is to be found in the article SCO against Linux.
Trademark Law at the name
1994 and 1995 had tried several persons in different countries to let the name Linux register as label names. Thereupon requests were issued to royalty payments to several Linux companies, with which many developers and trailer of the Linux system did not agree. Linus Torvalds proceeded by Linux international against these entries and got the trademark laws of the mark Linux assigned. This did not hand Torvalds at Linux to international over, later took over this work for it created, profit-oriented organization the Linux Mark of institutes. 2000 specified Linus Torvalds the basic rules for the assignment of the licenses. These mean that everyone, which offers a product or a service with the name to Linux must possess a license for it, which can be attained by a unique purchase. Exceptions form thereby non-commercial uses, which can to receive or none need a free license.
In June 2005 a new controversy over the royalties was responsible for the use of the protected label name Linux, because the Linux Mark of institutes, which Linus Torvalds of rights represents, had announced prices of 5,000 dollar instead of so far 500 dollar for the use of the name. The step with the risen costs of the penetration of the rights at the label name was justified.
In the Community provided this increase for displeasure and misunderstandings, why Linus Torvalds announced itself on 21 August 2005 even to the topic to word, in order to smooth the waves and dissolve the misunderstandings. In a E-Mail it described the current situation as well as background in detail and dealt also with the question, who had to pay license costs:
- „ And let' s repeat: somebody who doesn' t want ton _protect_ that name would never DO this. You CAN call anything „MyLinux “, but the downside is that you May have somebody else who _did_ protect himself come along and sends you A cease and desist type character. Or, if the name ends UP showing UP in A trademark search that LMI needs tons of DO every once just tons of protect the trademark (more another legal requirements for trademarks), while in A, LMI itself might have tons sends you to A cease and desist or sublicense it type character.
- RK which POINT you more either rename it tons something else, or you sublicense it. Lake? It' s all about more whether _you_ need the protection or emergency, emergency about whether LMI wants the money or emergency.
- Finally, just ton make it CLEARs: emergency only DO I emergency GET A cent OF the trademark money, but even LMI (who actually administers the Marks) has so far historically always draws money to on it. That' s emergency A way tons sustain A trademark, thus they' RH trying tons of RKs leases become self sufficient, but so far I CAN tell that lawyers fees ton _give_ that protection that commercial companies want have been more higher than the license fees. Even per bono lawyers load for the time OF their costs and paralegals etc
Chronology
- 1983: Richard Stallman creates the GNU project with the goal of creating a free operating system.
- 1989: Richard Stallman writes the first version of the GNU general Public License.
- 1991: The Linux Kernel is announced on 25 August by the 21-jährigen Finnish student Linus Benedict Torvalds publicly in the Usenet. On 17 September the first public version follows on a ftp server. Some developers are interested in the project and contributed improvements and extensions.
- 1992: The Linux Kernel is driven out under the GNU GPL and it to develop the first free Linux distributions.
- 1993: Already over 100 developers work on the Linux Kernel. With their assistance the Kernel is adapted to the GNU environment, which brings in Linux a large spectrum at application type. In this year also the work on the WINE project begins. In addition the oldest today existing Linux distribution the first time is published, Slackware, in the same year follows the establishment to today largest Community distribution of the Debian.
- 1994: It still lasts until March this yearly, until Torvalds all components in the Kernel for matured and completely judged and Linux in the version 1.0 publishes. The published Kernel is for the first time networkable. The XFree86-Projekt contributes a graphic user interface (GUI). In this year publish the companies talk has and SuSE the version 1.0 of their Linux distributions.
- 1995: In March the next stable branch appears, the 1.2-Reihe. In the further run of the yearly Linux is portiert on the platforms DEC and on Sun SPARC. In the course of the years follow ever more postage run genes after most different platforms.
- 1996: The version 2.0 of the Kernels is published. The Kernel can serve now several processors at
the same time, and becomes thereby for many companies a serious alternative in many work areas.
- 1997: Different proprietäre programs come for Linux on the market, under it the data base Adabas D, the Browser Netscape and the Office Suiten Applixware and StarOffice.
- 1998: Many considerable companies such as IBM, Compaq and Oracle announce their support for Linux. In addition a group of programmers begins with the development of the graphic user surface KDE, first of their class for Linux, with the goal of the user friendliness.
- 1999: The 2.2er-Serie appears in January with improved network code and improved SMP support. At the same time a group of developers begins with the graphic environment GNOMES, which will compete starting from the time with KDE for user friendliness and efficiency. During its IBM announces an extensive project for the support of Linux.
- 2000: Die Office-Suite StarOffice wird unter der GNU LGPL veröffentlicht, und legt damit den Grundstein für eine umfangreiche freie Office-Suite unter Linux.
- 2001: Die 2.4er-Serie wird im Januar frei gegeben. Der Kernel unterstützt nun bis zu 64 GByte RAM, 64-Bit-Dateisysteme, USB und Journaling Filesysteme.
- 2002: Die Entwicklergemeinschaft um OpenOffice.org bringt die Version 1.0 der Suite heraus. Ebenso wird der freie Webbrowser Mozilla in der Version 1.0 veröffentlicht. Im September infiziert der Wurm Slapper als erster Linux-Wurm überhaupt eine nennenswerte Anzahl von Linux-Rechnern
- 2003: Ende des Jahres wird der Kernel 2.6 freigegeben, nachdem Linus Torvalds vorher zum OSDL gewechselt war. Des Weiteren verbreitet sich Linux immer mehr auf Embedded Devices.
- 2004: Das XFree86-Team spaltet sich, es entwickelt sich die X.Org Foundation, die eine deutlich schnellere Entwicklung des X-Servers für Linux ermöglicht und verwirklicht.
- 2005: Das Projekt OpenSuSE wird als freie Community-Distribution von Novell gestartet. Außerdem erschien im Oktober OpenOffice.org in der Version 2.0, die den OpenDocument-Standard von OASIS unterstützt.
- 2006: Die Techniken Xgl von Novell und AIGLX von Red Hat ermöglichen die einfache Nutzung hardwarebeschleunigter Effekte auf dem Linux-Desktop. Oracle veröffentlicht eine eigene Variante von Red Hat Enterprise Linux. Novell und Microsoft kündigen eine Zusammenarbeit zur besseren Interoperabilität an.
References
- Just for Fun,Linus Torvalds and David Diamond, 2001
- Torvalds, Linux. What would you like to see most in minix? Usenet group comp.os.minix, August 25, 1991.
- Linus Torvalds in the release notes of Linux 0.12: The Linux copyright will change: I've had a couple of requests to make it compatible with the GNU copyleft, removing the "you may not distribute it for money" condition. I agree. I propose that the copyright be changed so that it confirms to GNU - pending approval of the persons who have helped write code. I assume this is going to be no problem for anybody: If you have grievances ("I wrote that code assuming the copyright would stay the same") mail me. Otherwise The GNU copyleft takes effect as of the first of February.
- Linux-Kernel, Version 0.99 (Z-kompimiert, 830 kB) auf dem kernel.org-FTP-Server. Dezember 1992
- Hiroo Yamagata: The Pragmatist of Free Software Linus Torvalds Interview, 05.08.1997
