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Marijuana (also known as ganja) and hashish are psychoactive products of the plant Cannabis sativa L. subsp. indica (= C. indica Lam.). The herbal form of the drug consists of dried mature inflorescences and subtending leaves of pistillate ("female") plants. The resinous form consists primarily of glandular trichomes collected from the same plant material. It has been reported that commercial hashish is often no more potent than high quality seedless marijuana. However, carefully produced and screened hashish is up to three times as potent as the highest quality herb.

The major biologically active chemical compound in Cannabis is Δ-tetrahydrocannabinol, commonly referred to as THC. It has psychoactive and physiological effects when consumed, usually by smoking or ingestion. The minimum amount of THC required to have a perceptible psychoactive effect is about 5 mg. A related compound, Δ-tetrahydrocannabidivarin, also know as THCV, is produced in appreciable amounts by certain drug strains. This cannabinoid has been described in the popular literature as having shorter-acting, flashier effects than THC, but recent studies suggest that it may actually inhibit the effects of THC. Relatively high levels of THCV are common in African dagga (marijuana), and in hashish from the northwest Himalayas.

Humans have been consuming Cannabis since prehistory, although in the 20th century there was a rise in its use for recreational, religious or spiritual, and medicinal purposes. It is estimated that Cannabis is now regularly used by four percent of the world's adult population, with estimates of up to 20% or greater of the adult population in the United States having tried the drug, and 10-30% or greater using the herb in many European countries. The possession, use, or sale of psychoactive Cannabis products became illegal in most parts of the world in the early 20th century. Since then, some countries have intensified the enforcement of Cannabis prohibition while others have reduced the priority of enforcement, almost to the point of legalization, as is the case in The Netherlands. The production of Cannabis for drug use remains illegal throughout most of the world through the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs, the 1971 Convention on Psychotropic Substances, and the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances, while simple possession of small quantities is either legal, or treated as an addiction rather than a criminal offense in a few countries. The laws in the United States vary from state to state, some having decriminalized the possession of small amounts of marijuana although it is still a federal crime.

Ancient history

Botanists have determined that Cannabis is native to central Asia, possibly extending southward into the Himalayas. Evidence of the inhalation of Cannabis smoke can be found as far back as the Neolithic age, as evidenced by charred seeds found in a ritual brazier at an ancient burial site in present day Romania. The most famous users of Cannabis were the ancient Hindus of India, and the Hashshashins (hashish eaters) of present day Syria. The herb was called ganjika in Sanskrit (ganja in modern Indian languages, named for the Ganges river). The ancient drug soma, mentioned in the Vedas as a sacred intoxicating hallucinogen, was sometimes associated with Cannabis.

Citizens of the Persian Empire would partake in the ceremonial burning of massive Cannabis bonfires, directly exposing themselves and neighboring tribes to the billowing fumes, often for over 24 hours.

Cannabis was also known to the Assyrians, who discovered it through the Aryans. Using it in some religious ceremonies, they called it qunubu or the drug for sadness. Cannabis was also introduced by the Aryans to the Scythians and Thracians/Dacians, whose shamans (the kapnobatai - "those who walk on smoke/clouds") burned Cannabis flowers to induce a state of trance. The cult of Dionysus, believed to have originated in Thrace, is also thought to have inhaled Cannabis smoke. In 2003, a leather basket filled with Cannabis leaf fragments and seeds was found next to a 2,500 to 2,800 year old mummified shaman in the northwestern Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region of China.

Religious and spiritual use

Cannabis has an ancient history of ritual use and is found in pharmacological cults around the world. Hemp seeds discovered by archaeologists at Pazyryk suggest early ceremonial practices by the Scythians occurred during the 5th to 2nd century BC, confirming previous historical reports by Herodotus. Some historians and etymologists have claimed that cannabis was used as a religious sacrament by ancient Jews, early Christians and Muslims of the Sufi order. In India and Nepal, it has been used by some of the wandering spiritual sadhus for centuries, and in modern times the Rastafari movement has embraced it. Elders of the modern religious movement known as the Ethiopian Zion Coptic Church consider cannabis to be the eucharist, claiming it as an oral tradition from Ethiopia dating back to the time of Christ. Like the Rastafari, some modern Gnostic Christian sects have asserted that Cannabis is the Tree of Life. Other organized religions founded in the past century that treat cannabis as a sacrament are the THC Ministry, the Way of Infinite Harmony, Cantheism, the Cannabis Assembly and the Church of cognizance. Many individuals also consider their use of cannabis to be spiritual regardless of organized religion.

Medical use

The Marijuana Policy Project states that Cannabis is an ideal therapeutic drug for cancer and AIDS patients, who often suffer from clinical depression, and from nausea and resulting weight loss due to chemotherapy and other aggressive treatments. It is claimed that Cannabis makes these other treatments more tolerable. The nausea suppression and mild analgesic effects of Cannabis also provide a degree of relief for persons suffering from motion sickness, and it can also be used by hyperhidrosis sufferers for temporary relief of excessive sweating.

There are many claims regarding the use of Cannabis in a medical context, both for and against. On April 20, 2006 the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA) issued an intra-agency advisory warning against medical Cannabis, restating the Drug Enforcement Administration's position that marijuana has a high potential for abuse, no currently accepted medical use, and a lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision. The FDA also asserted that, "there is currently sound evidence that smoked marijuana is harmful." However, a recent epidemiological study funded by the National Institute of Health (NIH) concluded that, "the association of these cancers with marijuana, even long-term or heavy use, is not strong and may be below practically detectable limits." Nevertheless, the official position of several medical organizations including the American Medical Association , the National Multiple Sclerosis Society , the American Glaucoma Society, the American Academy of Ophthalmology and the American Cancer Society is that they do not support smoking the herbal form of marijuana for medical use. On June 6, 2005, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down a decision which supported the Federal Government's position against "medical marijuana". Justices O'Connor, Rehnquist, and Thomas filed dissenting opinions.

Claims have been made that Cannabis reduces intraocular pressure (fluid pressure within the eye) and is therefore useful for glaucoma patients. It is also reported to be beneficial for treating certain neurological illnesses such as epilepsy, migraine and bipolar disorder. Studies have found that the use of Cannabis can relieve tics in patients suffering from OCD and/or Tourette syndrome. Patients treated with marijuana reported a significant decrease in both motor and vocal tics, some of 50% or more. Some decrease in obsessive-compulsive behavior were also found. A recent study has also concluded that cannabinoids found in Cannabis might have the ability to prevent Alzheimer's disease.

Currently the citizens of 11 states in the United States (upwards of 60 million people) have legalized Cannabis for medical use to some degree. Additionally, six states have enacted decriminalization policies toward the drug. Because the federal government does not acknowledge any medical uses for Cannabis, federal enforcement of prohibition continues in these states.

The medical use of Cannabis is politically controversial, but physicians sometimes recommend it informally despite the risk of federal prosecution in the United States. A synthetic version of the major active compound in Cannabis, THC, is available in capsule form as the prescription drug dronabinol (Marinol) in many countries. THC has been shown to reduce arterial blockages. The prescription drug Sativex, an extract of Cannabis administered as a sublingual spray, has been approved in Canada for the treatment of multiple sclerosis; this medication may now be legally imported into the United Kingdom and Spain on prescription. United States federal law currently registers Cannabis as a Schedule I drug (along with heroin and LSD), and Marinol as a Schedule III drug, despite the fact that they have the same active ingredient.

Relationship with other illicit drugs

Since its origin in the 1950s, the "gateway drug" theory has been one of the major facets of marijuana drug policy in the United States. Those who subscribe to this theory, which has since spread throughout the world, essentially believe that smoking Cannabis may lead users to other drugs and should therefore be treated as a serious matter. Some studies have found the theory to be false, whereas others have found truth to these claims. Several studies show that tobacco smoking is a better predictor of alcohol and illicit drug use than marijuana. Despite the conflicting results of these studies, much of the research on both sides suggests that the illegal status of Cannabis may have some correlation with the "gateway theory". In many countries Cannabis is outlawed, so the Cannabis user may very easily find himself or herself in situations where other illegal drugs are being used, or he or she may become acquainted with people who use other substances illegally through the process of purchasing Cannabis from black market dealers. Situations such as these may lead the user to move on to drugs that are generally considered more dangerous. As well, marijuana is usually the most easily accessable illegal drug in most regions of the world and many people that eventually move on to use other drugs, have usually started with marijuana. Keeping this in mind, there are certain activist groups such as NORML that argue that the legalization of Cannabis would eliminate these problems by taking it out of the hands of outlaws and regulating it in the same manner as drugs such as alcohol or tobacco. Government agencies such as the DEA, however, claim that legalization would do far more harm than good, and would perhaps cause a rise in Cannabis use.

New breeding and cultivation techniques

It is often claimed by growers and breeders of herbal Cannabis that advances in breeding and cultivation techniques have increased the potency of Cannabis since the late 1960's and early '70's. However, potent seedless marijuana such as "Thai sticks" were already available at that time. In fact, the sinsemilla technique of producing high potency ganja (marijuana) has been practiced in India for centuries. Sinsemilla (Spanish for without seed), is the dried, seedless inflorescences of female Cannabis plants. Because THC production drops off once pollination occurs, the male plants (which produce little THC themselves) are eliminated before they shed pollen to ensure that no pollination occurs. Advanced cultivation techniques such as hydroponics, cloning, high-intensity artificial lighting, and the sea of green method are frequently employed as a response (in part) to prohibition enforcement efforts that make outdoor cultivation more risky. These intensive horticultural techniques have led to fewer seeds being present in Cannabis and a general increase in potency over the past 20 years.

Many opponents of Cannabis use, both in and out of government, have exaggerated the increases in potency and ramifications thereof. In the United States, government advertisements encourage parents to disregard their own experiences with Cannabis when speaking to their children, on the premise that the "pot" of today is significantly stronger, and thus more dangerous, than that which they used in the past. In proposed revisions to Cannabis rescheduling in the U.K., the government is considering scheduling the more potent Cannabis material as a separate, more restricted substance. Many Cannabis proponents are vehemently opposed, reasoning that if one can smoke less Cannabis to achieve the same effect, then it is safer in the long run than smoking a less potent product.

There are two recognized types of herbal Cannabis, "sativa" and "indica." So-called "sativa" strains are reputed to induce a noticeably more "cerebral" high, while "indica" strains induce more of a body high. These two drug types are often hybridized or crossed with early-maturing (but low THC) "ruderalis" strains to increase the range in desirable characteristics.

Preparations for human consumption

Cannabis is prepared for human consumption in several forms:

• Marijuana or ganja: the leaves and flowering tops of female plants
• Hashish or charas: a concentrated resin composed of glandular trichomes and vegetative debris that has been physically extracted, usually by rubbing, sifting, or with ice
• Kief or kif: 1) the chopped flowering tops of female Cannabis plants, often mixed with tobacco; 2) Moroccan hashish produced in the Rif mountains; 3) sifted Cannabis trichomes consisting of only the glandular "heads" (often incorrectly referred to as "crystals" or "pollen")
• Bhang: a beverage prepared by grinding Cannabis leaves in milk and boiling with spices and other ingredients
• Hash oil: an oily mixture resulting from chemical extraction or distillation of the THC-rich parts of the plant
• Budder: hash oil whipped to incorporate air, making it more like butter

These forms are not exclusive, and mixtures of two or more different forms of Cannabis are frequently consumed. Between the many different strains of Cannabis and the various ways that it is prepared, there are innumerable variations similar to the wide variety of mixed alcoholic beverages that are consumed.

Smoking

There are a wide variety of methods and apparatus for smoking Cannabis. The most popular include the joint, the blunt, the hookah, the bong, the pipe (more commonly called a "bowl" or "piece"), the shotgun, the chillum, and the one-hitter or "bat." Cannabis is sometimes smoked within a small enclosed area (such as a car) to trap the smoke, so that it is inhaled with every breath. This is often referred to as "hotboxing," "fishbowling," "baking," "jeaning," "clam-baking," "green-housing," creating a "potmosphere," or (in Australia), a "compression session." One can also smoke marijuana in a steam-filled environment (bathroom, sauna), with the added humidity intended to produce a greater high.

To create a joint, herbal Cannabis is rolled into a cigarette using rolling paper, when available. As a last resort, brown paper, newsprint, and other assorted paper products are sometimes used to roll a "spliff." Cannabis cigars, or blunts can also be created by using the wrapper of an ordinary cigar ("Phillies Blunts" are a popular choice).

The classic bong is a tube with a small bowl (at the end of a thinner tube) inserted through the side, near the base. The bong is partially filled with water for the smoke to bubble through. The herb is placed in the bowl and ignited. After filling the tube with smoke, it is "cleared" by removing one's finger from a hole in the side. Homemade bongs are sometimes made with plastic soda bottles. Smoking marijuana through a bong concentrates the smoke, and it is often followed by fits of coughing and laughter. Variants include the gravity bong (also known as a bucket bong), which consists of a cone atop a perforated or cut water bottle. This method of Cannabis smoking is one of the most efficient, as the presence of a chamber and "carburetor" hole reduce smoke waste. With a bong, one can consume greater amounts of Cannabis in one "hit" than withan ordinary pipe. Pipes are usually made of blown glass, wood, or non-reactive metals. Metal pipes are often made of interchangeable pieces. Glass pipes often have a "carburetor" hole, colloquially referred to as a carb, rush, choke, shotgun, or shooter (British use) that is covered for suction and then released to draw a mixture of smoke and air into the lungs. Some users prefer vertically held pipes (chillums), or improvised pipes (e.g., "tinnies" or "foilies") made from aluminium foil, small plumbing fittings, soda cans, crisp fruits or vegetables, or the cardboard tubes from bathroom-tissue or aluminium foil rolls.

A "one-hitter" is a device that enables a small amount of Cannabis to be burned and inhaled in a single breath. The Cannabis is loaded into one end of a small screenless tube (usually brass), and the entire amount is smoked at once. This is repeated for each hit. This method is useful for carefully titrating the desired dose. One-hitters are often disguised to fool people into believing that one is smoking an authentic cigarette. This deception is more effective (but less healthy) if the Cannabis is mixed with a little tobacco.

Vaporization

With a vaporizer, cannabis can be heated to a temperature of about 365 °F (185 °C), at which the active ingredients are released into gaseous form with little or no burning of the plant material. With this method, the user does not inhale as many (or any) toxic chemicals depending on the quality of the vaporizer. Scientific studies by MAPS/NORML have yielded varied results on the effectiveness of vaporizing as a method of cannabis consumption. One particular study by MAPS/NORML, using a Volcano Vaporizer found 95% THC and no toxins delivered in the vapor. However, an older study by MAPS/NORML showed minimal reduction of toxins. Because of this method's similarity in common use to vaporizing or "freebasing" crack cocaine or heroin, this method is also commonly known as freebasing, although the technical definition of "freebase" relates to an alkaloid in its standalone, non-salt form.

Eating cannabis

Cannabis may be orally consumed. In order to release its psychoactive properties hashish can be eaten raw or mixed with water but marijuana will only be absorbed into the bloodstream by blending it with ethanol or lipids. The effects of the drug take longer to begin, but last longer and may be perceived as more physical rather than mental, though there are claims to the contrary. A dose of oral cannabis is often considered to give a stronger experience than the equivalent dose of smoked cannabis, and some people are displeased after ingesting the compounds this way after receiving too great an effect with an unknown dose. A common belief holds that smoking cannabis leads to a large amount of the active compounds being lost in the exhaled smoke or simply decomposing on burning, whereas ingested cannabis results in 100% consumption of the active compounds, an assertion which cannot be confirmed without objective analysis. It is thought that the active component of cannabis, Δ9-THC, is converted to the more psychoactive 11-hydroxy-THC in the liver. Titration is much more complex than through inhalation. Common preparations involve blending with butter, to create Cannabutter that is used in preparing Brownies, fudge, cookies, ganja goo balls or space cakes. When blended with melted butter, the plant is finely minced almost into powder form. A more pure form on Cannabutter is prepared by heating marijuana bud or trim with butter and water for an extended period of time without boiling. The trim or bud is filtered out through a strainer or cheese cloth, and the water and butter are allowed to naturally separate, leaving Cannabutter to be used in recipes. However, there are some preparations that do not contain butter in them and therefore fall into a slightly different category; these include the Leary biscuit, which requires less preparation than more "conventional" recipes. Infusion in drinks containing milk and flavoring herbs is also possible, and more common in India. Hollowed-out gumballs filled with the plant, wrapped and distributed labeled as Greenades, were identified in 2006 as being used by high school students in the United States.

As with other drugs that are taken orally, it is sometimes customary to fast before eating the plant to increase the effect, possibly because an empty stomach will digest the plant faster so it 'hits' stronger. However, some people do eat before consuming the drug because eating it on an empty stomach may cause nausea. Still, time to effect onset is an hour or sometimes more, as opposed to smoking, where effects can be almost immediate.

Cannabis can also be leached in high-percentage ethanol (often grain alcohol) to create Green Dragon. This process is often used to utilize otherwise low-quality stems and leaves.

Cannabis can also be consumed as a tea. THC is lipophilic and only slightly water soluble, with a solubility of only 2.8 grams per litre, but enough to make a tea effective. Water-based infusion is generally considered to be inefficient.

The seeds of the plant, high in protein and fatty acids, are appreciated by many species of birds. Many countries, including the United States, make the possession of viable cannabis seeds illegal, although they can be openly bought and sold legally in much of Europe, including the UK.

Immediate effects of consumption

The nature and intensity of the immediate effects of cannabis consumption vary according to the dose, the species or hybridization of the source plant, the method of consumption, the user's mental and physical characteristics (such as possible tolerance), and the environment of consumption. This is sometimes referred to as set and setting. Smoking the same cannabis either in a different frame of mind (set) or in a different location (setting) can alter the effects or perception of the effects by the individual. What the user does under the influence can also affect the effects of cannabis. For example, if the user does nothing they will feel relaxed and sleepy, whereas if they engage in intense physical or mental activity they will feel energised. Effects of cannabis consumption may be loosely classified as cognitive and physical. Anecdotal evidence suggests that drug varieties of Cannabis sativa subsp. sativa tend to produce more of the cognitive or perceptual effects, while C. sativa subsp. indica tends to produce more of the physical effects.

Active ingredients, metabolism, and method of activity

Of the approximately 315 different psychoactive chemicals found in Cannabis, the main active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, THC). THC is chemically unstable and will degrade over time to cannabinol. Different cannabis products have different ratios of THC, cannabidiol, cannabinol and other cannabinoids. Depending on the ratio, the quality and nature of the "high" will vary.

THC has an effect on the modulation of the immune system, which may have an effect on malignant cells, but there is insufficient scientific study to determine whether this might promote or limit the cause of cancer. Cannabinoid receptors are also present in the human reproductive system, but there is insufficient scientific study to conclusively determine the effects of cannabis on reproduction. It is however a widely-held belief that smoking cannabis lowers the sperm count of men, in particular smoking stems and seeds. Mild to moderate allergies to cannabis may be possible in some members of the population. A study has shown that holding cannabis smoke in one's lungs for longer periods of time does not conclusively increase THC's effects on psychological test performance

Lethal dose

According to the Merck Index, 12th edition, the LD₅₀, the lethal dose for 50% of rats tested by inhalation, is 42 mg/kg of body weight. That is the equivalent of a 165 lb (75 kg) man inhaling all of the THC in 21, one-gram cigarettes of extremely high-potency (15% THC) cannabis buds at once, arguably an impossibility, and assuming that no THC was lost through burning or errant smoke. For oral consumption, the LD₅₀ of THC for rats is 1270 mg/kg and 730 mg/kg for males and females, respectively, equivalent to the THC in about a pound of 15% THC cannabis. Only with intravenous administration may such a level be even theoretically possible. The ratio of cannabis required to saturate cannabinoid receptors to the amount of cannabis required to have a fatal over dose is 1:40,000. There have been no reported deaths or permanent injuries sustained as a result of a marijauna overdose.

Health issues and the effects of cannabis

The most obvious confounding factor in cannabis research is the very prevalent usage of other recreational drugs, including alcohol and tobacco. Such complications demonstrate the need for studies on cannabis which have stronger controls and investigations into the symptoms of cannabis that may also be caused by tobacco.

In addition, research using cannabis is heavily restricted in many countries, reducing the studies funded or approved, and it may be many years before accurate, unbiased information comes to light.

Unlike tobacco, cannabis has not been shown to cause emphysema or lung cancer. Other studies have suggested that cannabis may be less likely to cause birth defects or developmental delays in the children of users than other drugs. According to a United Kingdom government report, using cannabis is less dangerous than both tobacco and alcohol in social harms, physical harm and addiction.

Cannabis has a complicated effect on memory, and its effects have been shown to vary from case to case. Rats who were exposed to THC daily for 30% of their typical lifespan showed neurodegeneration of the hippocampus, an area of the brain associated with memory and learning. Similar findings in humans have not yet been established, and some studies even point to enhancement of particular types of memory. Additional research has shown that cannabis has neuroprotective effects, further demonstrating its complicated action. However, A 1998 French governmental report commissioned by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner, and directed by Dr. Pierre-Bernard Roques determined that "former results suggesting anatomic changes in the brain of chronic cannabis users, measured by tomography, were not confirmed by the accurate modern neuroimaging techniques like MRI. Moreover, morphological impairment of the hippocampus of rat after administration of very high doses of THC (Langfield et al., 1988) was not shown (Slikker et al., 1992)." he concluded that : "Scientifical facts show that, for cannabis, no neurotoxicity is demonstrated, to the contrary of alcohol and cocaine."

Research between the use of cannabis and mental illness has also brought significant results. Cannabis use is generally higher among sufferers of schizophrenia, but the causality between the two has not been established. Another study concluded that sustained early-adolescent cannabis use among genetically predisposed individuals has been associated with a variety of mental illness outcomes; ranging from psychotic episodes to clinical schizophrenia.

Legality

Since the 20th century, most countries have enacted laws against the cultivation, use, possession, or transfer of cannabis for recreational use. Naturally, these laws impact adversely on the cannabis plant's cultivation for non-recreational purposes, but there are many regions where, under certain circumstances, handling of cannabis is legal or licensed, and others where laws against its use, possession, or sale are not enforced. Many jurisdictions have also decriminalized possession of small quantities of cannabis, so that it is punished by confiscation or a fine, rather than imprisonment. By effectively removing the user from the criminal justice system, decriminalization focuses more on those who traffic and sell the drug on the black market. However, this does not solve the problem of how a user will obtain the "legal amount" of cannabis, since buying or growing cannabis is still illegal. Increasingly, many jurisdictions also permit cannabis use for medicinal purposes. Some countries allow the sale through drug companies. However, simple possession can carry long jail sentences in some countries, particularly in East Asia, where the sale of cannabis may lead to a sentence of life in prison or even execution.

Recent history

Under the name cannabis, 19th century medical practitioners sold the drug, (usually as a tincture) popularizing the word amongst English-speakers. It was rumoured to have been used to treat Queen Victoria's menstrual pains as her personal physician, Sir John Russell Reynolds, was a staunch supporter of the benefits of cannabis. Cannabis was also openly available from shops in the US. By the end of the 19th century, its medicinal use began to fall as other drugs like aspirin took over its use as a pain reliever.

In 1894, the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission commissioned by the UK Secretary of State and the government of India, was instrumental in the decision not to criminalize the drug in those countries. The Report, which at over 500 pages remains one of the most complete collections of information on cannabis in existence, shows the stark contrast in the way that the American and British governments went about deciding whether to criminalize cannabis.

The name marijuana (Mexican Spanish marihuana, mariguana) is associated almost exclusively with the plant's psychoactive use. The term is now well known in English largely due to the efforts of American drug prohibitionists during the 1920s and 1930s, which deliberately used a Mexican name for cannabis in order to turn the populace against the idea that it should be legal, playing upon attitudes towards race. (See 1937 Marihuana Tax Act). Those who demonized the drug by calling it marihuana omitted the fact that the "deadly marihuana" was identical to cannabis indica, which had at the time a reputation for pharmaceutical safety.

Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects since ancient times, it first became well known in the United States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a prominent part of 1960s counterculture.

Decriminalization and legalization

In recent decades, a movement to decriminalize cannabis has arisen in several countries. 12 US states have passed by majority vote of the citizenry, laws allowing some degree of medical use, while a further 6 states have taken steps to decriminalize it to some degree. This movement seeks to make simple possession of cannabis punishable by only confiscation or a fine, rather than prison. In the past several years, the movement has started to have some successes. These include Denver, Colorado legalizing possession of up to an ounce of cannabis, a broad coalition of political parties in Amsterdam, Netherlands unveiling a pilot program to allow farmers to grow it legally, and Massachusetts voting in favor of a bill to decriminalize the possession of up to an ounce of cannabis.

In Alaska, cannabis was decided legal for in-home, personal use under the Ravin vs. State ruling in 1975. This ruling allowed up to four ounces of cannabis for these purposes. A 1991 voter ballot initiative recriminalized marijuana possession, but when that law was eventually challenged in 2004, the Alaska court's upheld the Ravin ruling, saying the popular vote could not trump the state constitution.In response to former Governor Frank Murkowski's successive attempt to re-criminalize cannabis, the ACLU filed a lawsuit against the state. On July 17, 2006, Superior Court Judge Patricia Collins awarded the Case Summary judgement to the ACLU. In her ruling, she said "No specific argument has been advanced in this case that possession of more than 1 ounce of cannabis, even within the privacy of the home, is constitutionally protected conduct under Ravin or that any plaintiff or ACLU of Alaska member actually possesses more than 1 ounce of cannabis in their homes." This does not mean that the legal possession threshold has been reduced to one ounce, as this was a mere case summary review filed by the ACLU, not a full case. Reinforcing Ravin, Collins wrote "A lower court cannot reverse the State Supreme Court's 1975 decision in Ravin v. State" and "Unless and until the Supreme Court directs otherwise, Ravin is the law in this state and this court is duty bound to follow that law". The law regarding possession of cannabis has not changed in Alaska, and the Supreme Court has declined to review the case, therefore the law still stands at 4 ounces.

In 2002, Nevada voters defeated a ballot question which would legalize up to 3 ounces for adults 21 and older by 39% to 61%. In 2006, a similar Nevada ballot initiative, which would have legalized and regulated the cultivation, distribution, and possession of up to 1 ounce of marijuana by adults 21 and older, was defeated by 44% to 56%.

In 2001 in the United Kingdom, it was announced that cannabis would become a Class C drug, rather than a Class B, this change took effect on January 29, 2004. Since then there has recently been some controversy amongst UK politicians about the message this sends out, with some calling for its reclassification to Class B.

The Government of Mexico voted to legalize the possession of cannabis under 5 grams on April 28, 2006. However, as of May 3, 2006, Mexican President Vicente Fox has said that he will not sign this proposed law until Congress removes the parts that would decriminalize the possession of small quantities of drugs and vetoed the bill on May 4, 2006, sparking broad controversy over the bill. In the early summer of 2006 Fox and the Mexican congress came to an agreement and legalized possession of small amounts (and also measured amounts of other drugs). On July 17, 2006, Italian Social Solidarity Minister Paolo Ferrero, speaking of the urgent need for depenalising the consumption of light drugs, said that "a joint is less harmful than a litre of wine." In the Australian Capital Territory, two plants both less than 6 feet tall are allowed for personal use. In South Australia however, possession of cannabis is an offence, with fines ranging from $150 to $300 for possession and cultivation of small amounts. There is much confusion on the subject, with many people believing that possession of a certain amount is legal. In South Australia however, this is a myth.

Legality in Hong Kong

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Cannabis is regulated under section 9 of Hong Kong's Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance.

Cultivation and dealing with cannabis plant is illegal and a fine of $100,000 and to imprisonment for 15 years can be laid by the court. Anyone who supplies the substance without prescription can be fined $10,000(HKD). The penalty for trafficking or manufacturing the substance is a $5,000,000 (HKD) fine and life imprisonment. Possession of the substance for consumption without license from the Department of Health is illegal with a $1,000,000 fine and/or 7 years of jail time.

Legality in the United States

Under Federal law, it is illegal to possess, use, buy, sell, or cultivate marijuana anywhere in the United States. The Controlled Substances Act of 1970 classifies marijuana as a Schedule I drug, meaning it has a high potential for abuse and no accepted medical use. Under the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution, Federal law in the United States preempts conflicting state and local laws. Nevertheless, some states and local governments have established laws attempting to decriminalize cannabis, which has reduced the number of "simple possession" offenders sent to jail, since federal enforcement agents rarely target individuals directly for such relatively minor offenses. Other state and local governments ask law enforcement agencies to limit enforcement of drug laws with respect to cannabis. In the 2006 election, amendment 44 of Colorado making it legal to possess less than 1 ounce of marijuana, failed and the election was 40-60, yet it is still a misdemeanor to possess up to one half pound, and is punished mainly by fines unless sale is established.

The National Center for Natural Products Research in Oxford, Mississippi is the only facility in the United States that is federally licensed by the National Institute on Drug Abuse to cultivate cannabis for scientific research. The Center is part of the School of Pharmacy at the University of Mississippi.

See also

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• Wiktionary appendix of cannabis slang
• National Organization for the Reform of Marijuana Laws
• Illegal drug trade
• Psychoactive drugs
• Health issues and the effects of cannabis
• 420 (cannabis culture)
• BC Bud
• Bhang
• Cannabis (drug) cultivation
• Cannabis coffee shops
• Cheech & Chong
• Drug policy of the Netherlands
• Eagle Bill
• Emerald Triangle
• Fitz Hugh Ludlow ("The Hasheesh Eater")
• Grow-op
• Hash oil
• Head shop
• Jack Herer
• List of cannabis strains
• Marc Emery
• Marijuana Parties
• Marijuana Decriminalization
• Psychoactive drug
• Quebec Gold
• Seed bank
• Shake
• Soap bar
• Thai stick
• Stoner
• Stoner rock
• Victor Robinson
• War on Drugs

References

Notes

1. Baker, P. B., K. R. Bagon, and T. A. Gough. 1980. Variation in the THC content in illicitly imported Cannabis products. Bulletin on Narcotics 4: 47-54. Retrieved 25 Feb 2007
2. ^ Clarke, R. C. 1998. Hashish! Red Eye Press. Los Angeles, California.
3. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. 2006. Cannabis: Why we should care. World Drug Report, vol. 1. ISBN 92-1-148214-3 Retrieved on 10 Nov 2006
4. Antonio Waldo Zuardi. 2006. History of Cannabis as a medicine: a review. Revista Brasileira de Psiquiatria 28(2): 153-157. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007
5. Richard Rudgley. 1999. The Lost Civilizations of the Stone Age. Touchstone, New York. ISBN 0-684-85580-1
6. Timothy Leary. 1990. Flashbacks. Tarcher/Putnam, New York. ISBN 0-87477-870-0
7. 1911. Hemp. Encyclopædia Britannica, 11th ed. Retrieved on 15 Jun 2006
8. Richard Rudgley. 1998. Soma. The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Substances. Little, Brown and Company, Great Britian. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007
9. Abu Usaybia. 1965. Uyunu al-Anba fi Tabaquat al-Atibba. University of California Press, Berkeley.
10. Edward Preble and Gabriel V. Laury, 1967. Plastic cement: the ten cent hallucinogen. International Journal of the Addictions 2: 271-272.
11. 2006. Lab work to identify 2,800-year-old mummy of shaman. People's Daily Online (English). Retrieved 25 Feb 2007
12. Hong-En Jiang, Xiao Li, You-Xing Zhao, David K. Ferguson, Francis Hueber, Subir Bera, Yu-Fei Wang, Liang-Cheng Zhao, Chang-Jiang Liu, and Cheng-Sen Li. 2006. A new insight into Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae) utilization from 2500-year-old Yanghai tombs, Xinjiang, China. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 108(3): 414-422. Retrieved 25 Feb 2007
13. Hashibe, M., H. Morgenstern, Y. Cui, D. P. Tashkin, Z.-F. Zhang, W. Cozen, T. M. Mack, and S. Greenland. 2006. Marijuana use and the risk of lung and upper aerodigestive tract cancers: results of a population-based case-controlled study. Cancer Epidemiology, Biomarkers & Prevention 15(10): 1829-1834. Retrieved on Feb 26 2007
14. Bates, K. L. 16 Oct 2006. Study fails to find link between marijuana use and cancer. The University Record Online. University of Michigan. Retrieved on 26 Feb 2007
15. Zakrzewski, P. A. and L. Kus. 2003. Evaluating non-conventional treatments for glaucoma: a review article. Hypothesis 1(1): 30-33. Retrieved 26 Feb 2007
16. ^ K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, H. Kolbe, H.M. Emrich (1999). "Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome With Delta-9-Tetrahydrocannabinol". American Journal of Psychiatry. 156 (3).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
17. K.R. Muller, U. Schneider, A. Koblenz, M. Jöbges, H. Kolbe, T. Daldrup, H.M. Emrich (2002). "Treatment of Tourette's Syndrome with Δ9-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC): A Randomized Crossover Trial". Pharmacopsychiatry. 35 (2).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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19. Ramíirez, B. G., C. Blázquez, T. Gómez del Pulgar, M. Guzmán, and M. L. de Ceballos. 2005. Prevention of Alzheimer's disease pathology by cannabinoids: neuroprotection mediated by blockade of microglial activation. Journal of Neuroscience 25(8): 1904-1913. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007
20. Steffens, S., N. R. Veillard, C. Arnaud, G. Pelli, F. Burger, C. Staub, M. Karsak, A. Zimmer, J.-L. Frossard, and F. Mach. Low dose oral cannabinoid therapy reduces progression of atherosclerosis in mice. Nature 474(7034): 782-786. Retrieved 27 Feb 2007
21. Koch, W. 23 Jun 2005. Spray alternative to pot on the market in Canada. USA Today (online). Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007
22. "Europe: Sativex Coming to England, Spain". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
23. 2 Dec 2002. RAND study casts doubt on claims that marijuana acts as "gateway" to the use of cocaine and heroin. RAND Corporation. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007
24. Richard Saitz. 18 Feb 2003. Is marijuana a gateway drug? Journal Watch. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007
25. Torabi, M. R., W. J. Bailey, and M. Majd-Jabbari. 1993. Cigarette smoking as a predictor of alcohol and other drug use by children and adolescents: evidence of the "gateway drug effect". Journal of School Health 63(7): 302-306. Retrieved on 25 Feb 2007
26. Morral, Andrew R. (2002.). "Reassessing the marijuana gateway effect". Addiction. 97 (12): 1493–1504. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
27. "Marijuana Policy Project- FAQ". Retrieved 2006-12-24.
28. "Marijuana Decriminalization & Its Impact on Use". Retrieved 2007-01-29.
29. "The DEA Position on Marijuana". Retrieved 2007-01-29.
30. "Nation's Youth Turning Away from Marijuana, as Perceptions of Risk Rise; Most Adults with Substance Abuse Problems Are Employed" (Press release). United States Department of Health and Human Services. 2004-09-09. Retrieved 2006-05-30. {{cite press release}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
31. Anouk Zijlma. Smoking hashish in Morocco. Retrieved on 27 Feb 2007
32. Gieringer, Dale H. (2004). "Cannabis Vaporizer Combines Efficient Delivery of THC with Effective Suppression of Pyrolytic Compounds" (pdf). Journal of Cannabis Therapeutics. 4 (1): 7–27. doi:10.1300/J175v04n01_02. Retrieved 2006-04-21. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |quotes= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
33. Gieringer, Dale. "Marijuana Water Pipe and Vaporizer Study". Retrieved 2006-04-21.
34. Paulo Borini; Romeu Cardoso Guimarães; Sabrina Bicalho Borini (2004). "Possible hepatotoxicity of chronic marijuana usage". Sao Paulo Medical Journal. 122 (3). doi:10.1590/S1516-31802004000300007. Retrieved 2006-05-02. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
35. "Greenades, Marijuana Gumballs, Identified by Maryland Police, Used by High School Students". PR Web. 2006-07-22. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
36. Akinde Omotayo. "The Medical Applications of Cannabinoids". Borough of Manhattan Community College. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
37. "Controlled Substances Act". 21 USCS § 801. United States Drug Enforcement Agency. Retrieved November 4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
38. "Urban Legends Reference Pages: Language (420)". Retrieved 2006-05-11.
39. Erowid. "Cannabis Chemistry". Retrieved 2006-03-20.
40. Marijuana use and increased risk of squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck
41. Fred Gardner (2006-07-06). "Marijuana Smoking Does Not Cause Lung Cancer". {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |org= ignored (help)
42. D.P. Tashkin; et al. (January 1997). "Heavy habitual marijuana smoking does not cause an accelerated decline in FEV1 with age". Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 155 (1): 141–148. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
43. "Study finds no marijuana-lung cancer link". Washington Post. 2006-05-26. Retrieved 2006-07-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
44. J.S. Hayes, R. Lampart, M.C. Dreher, L. Morgan (1991). "Five-year follow-up of rural Jamaican children whose mothers used marijuana during pregnancy". West Indian Medical Journal. 40 (3): 120–3.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
45. M.C. Dreher, K. Nugent, R. Hudgins (1994). "Prenatal Marijuana Exposure and Neonatal Outcomes in Jamaica: An Ethnographic Study". Pediatrics. 93 (3): 254–260.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
46. "UK government report" (PDF). House of Commons Science and Technology Committee. 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-08-29. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)]
47. National Institute On Drug Abuse (2005-06). "Marijuana Abuse" (PDF). Research Report Series. Retrieved 2007-02-13. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
48. {{}}
49. 1998 INSERM-CNRS report, directed by Pr. Bernard Roques and commissioned by Health Secretary of State Bernard Kouchner
50. Cécile Henquet, Lydia Krabbendam, Janneke Spauwen, Charles Kaplan, Roselind Lieb, Hans-Ulrich Wittchen and Jim van Os (2004). "Prospective cohort study of cannabis use, predisposition for psychosis, and psychotic symptoms in young people". British Medical Journal. 330 (11).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
51. G C Patton, Carolyn Coffey, J B Carlin, Louisa Degenhardt, Micheal Lynskey and Wayne Hall (2005). "Cannabis use and mental health in young people: cohort study". British Medical Journal. 325 (1195).{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
52. Louise Arseneault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longitudinal prospective study" (PDF). British Medical Journal.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
53. Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arseneault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (January 2005). "Moderation of the Effect of Adolescent-Onset Cannabis Use on Adult Psychosis by a Functional Polymorphism in the catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene: Longitudinal Evidence of a Gene X Environment Interaction" (PDF). Society of Biological Psychiatry.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link)
54. "Positive and negative cerebral symptoms: the roles of Russell Reynolds and Hughlings Jackson". Retrieved 2006-03-25.
55. Kaplan, J. (1969) "Introduction" of the Report of the Indian Hemp Drugs Commission ed. by The Honorable W. Mackworth Young, et al. (Simla: Government Central Printing Office, 1894) LCCN 74-84211, pp. v-vi.
56. Gieringer, Dale H. (2006-06-17). "The Origins of Cannabis Prohibition in California" (PDF). Contemporary Drug Problems. 26 (2). Retrieved 2007-01-05. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help); Cite has empty unknown parameters: |coauthors= and |month= (help); Unknown parameter |quotes= ignored (help) p.13
57. Patrick O'Driscoll (2005-11-03). "Denver votes to legalize marijuana possession". USA Today. Retrieved 2006-03-11. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
58. "Dutch Politicians Seek Marijuana Rules". Retrieved 2006-02-25.
59. "Marijuana fight nears". Retrieved 2006-02-17.
60. "Home Office- Class B to Class C". Retrieved 2006-03-27.
61. Randewich, Noel (2006-04-28). "Mexico to decriminalize pot, cocaine and heroin". Reuters. Retrieved 2006-04-28. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |Author= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
62. "Mexico's Fox won't sign drug law". Reuters. 2006-05-03. Retrieved 2006-05-04. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
63. "Mexican legal drug proposal rejected". Sign On San Diego. 2006-05-04. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
64. "Mexico denies drug law veto result of US pressure". Dominican Today. 2006-05-04. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
65. "Protest at Mexican Consulate in New York, Friday". Scoop. 2006-05-05. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
66. "Drug Bill Veto Sparks Mexico City Marijuana Smoke-In". Fox News. 2006-06-05. Retrieved 2006-05-13. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
67. "DRUG: FERRERO DECRIMINALIZE CONSUMPTION OF LIGHT DRUGS". Agenzia Giornalistica Italia. 2006-07-17. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Text "accessdat2--6-07-26" ignored (help)

Bibliography

• Howard Markel (2002-10-27). "For Addicts, Relief May Be an Office Visit Away". New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Louise Arsenault, Mary Cannon, Richie Poulton, Robin Murray, Avshalom Caspi, and Terrie E. Moffitt (2002). "Cannabis use in adolescence and risk for adult psychosis: longtudinal prospective study" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 325: 1212–1213.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Avshalom Caspi, Terrie E. Moffitt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, HonaLee Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arsenault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie Poulton, and Ian W. Craig (2005). "Moderation of the effect of adult-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the Catchol-O-Methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene X environment interaction" (PDF). Biol Psychiatry. 25: 1117–1127. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |Author= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
• Henderson, Mark (2005-04-12). "One in four at risk of cannabis psychosis". The Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Bruce Mirken and Neel Makwana (Aston Birmingham): "Psychosis, Hype And Baloney". AlterNet. 2005-03-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• James Huff and Po Chan (October 2000). "Antitumor Effects of THC". Environmental Health Perspectives. 108(10): Correspondence. PMID 11097557.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
• Cannabis: A History (2005). Martin Booth - ISBN 0-312-32220-8

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• Psychedelics, dissociatives and deliriants
• Cannabis
• Medicinal plants