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Origins of Asian martial arts

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See also Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection.

Foreign influence on Chinese martial arts is endorsed by the traditional Shaolin Monastery claims and the claims of a large number of martial arts historians. Both versions agree that the foreign influence was vital in the development of native Chinese fighting styles and the Shaolin's approach to institutionalized martial arts in China.

Main gate of the Shaolin temple in Henan

Early influences

Mongolian and Manchurian influence

Chinese wrestling is the oldest fighting fighting system in China. With roots in the grappling styles of the Mongolians and the Tibetians, the practice reached a high degree of practicality and sophestication before most other Asian martial arts were concieved. Most styles of Chinese wrestling were developed and spread in the North and in the neighbouring lands of the Manchurians and Mongolians. The specialized terms used in Chinese wrestling contain not only the vernacular of local areas of the North; there is also a mix of Manchurian and Mongolian terms.

Shuai Jiao became the official name for Chinese wrestling in 1928 when the nationalist government was organizing and systemizing the Chinese martial arts. It is important to note that modern Chinese wrestling is not viewed as a "Han art," i.e., not a "Chinese art" but rather a Mongolian art.

Proposed Greek influence

According to one theory, the Greek martial art of Pankration practiced by Alexander the Great's army influenced the martial arts of China. Alexander the Great's empire streched as far as India. It is now considered by some martial arts historians that his army may have left behind the basics for the development of the Asian arts. Notable figures, such as Tatsuo Suzuki, Hirokazu Kanazawa, and Masutasu Oyama have asserted on the possible Greek influence on Chinese martial arts.

Establishment of the Shaolin Monastery

The Indian dhyana master Buddhabhadra was the founding abbot and patriarch of the Shaolin temple.

According to the Deng Feng County Recording (Deng Feng Xian Zhi), Bátuó came to China in 464 CE to preach Nikaya Buddhism. Thirty-one years later, in 495, the Shaolin Monastery was built by the order of Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei for Batuo's preaching. The temple originally consisted of a round dome used as a shrine and a platform where Indian and Chinese monks translated Indian Buddhist scriptures into native Chinese languages.

Bodhidharma

Origins of Bodhidharma

The major accounts regarding the origins of Bodhidharma are given by Yáng Xuànzhī, Tanlin and Daoxuan.

According to Yáng Xuànzhī:

At that time there was a monk of the Western Region named Bodhidharma, a Persian Central Asian. He traveled from the wild borderlands to China.

— Yang Xuanzhi, The Record of the Buddhist Monasteries of Lo-yang (547)

Jeffrey Broughton notes that Yáng Xuànzhī may have been referring to a different monk named Bodhidharma, as he mentions a Bodhidharma twice.

Bodhidharma's original name was Bodhitara. The suffix "dharma" means duty in context of Dharmic religions. Yáng Xuànzhī may have been honoring another dharma teacher with the suffix (of dharma). There have been other Indian monks sharing the prefix of "Bodhi" (Sanskrit word for "awakening" or "enlightenment"), such as Bodhiruci, regarded as the patriarch of the Ti-Lun School.

The claim that Bodhidharma was South Indian has its origins in Tanlin's preface to the Two Entrances and Four Acts.

The Dharma Master was a South Indian of the Western Region. He was the third son of a great Indian King.

— Tanlin, The Two Entrances and Four Acts (pre-645)

Daoxuan adds more detail concerning Bodhidharma's origins, writing that he was "of South Indian Brahman stock" (南天竺婆羅門種 nán tiānzhú póluómén zhŏng).

Bodhidharma of South Indian Brahman stock.

— Daoxuan, Xu Gaoseng Zhuan (645)

Broughton notes that Bodhidharma's royal pedigree implies that he was of the Kshatriya warrior caste, though South Indian inscriptions in the 4th and 5th centuries imply that the Pallava dynasty also had Brahmin origins; hence, they may have belonged to the caste of Braham-Kshatriya (Brahmin in origin and Kshatriya by profession). Other Indian social groups, such as the Nairs and the Kayasthas, also adhere to more than one varnas.

Bodhidharma's influence

Bodhidharma by Tsukioka Yoshitoshi (1839-1892)

Bodhidharma is credited with the establishment of the Zen sect of Mahayana Buddhism. Bodhidharma arrived in China during the 5th century. He stayed and taught for several years in the Shaolin temple.

The Mahayana school of Buddhism is noted for it's proximity with Yoga. In the west, Zen is often set alongside Yoga, the two schools of meditation display obvious family resemblences. The melding of Yoga with Buddhism -- a process that continued through the centuries-- represents a landmark on the path of Yoga through the history of India. This phenomenon merits special attention since the Yogic roots are to be found in the Zen Buddhist school of meditation. Certain essential elements of Yoga are important both for Buddhism in general and for Zen in particular.

Grandmaster Wong Kiew Kit, 4th generation successor of the Southern Shaolin Monastery writes :-

It was during this time that the Venerable Bodhidharma came from India to China to spread Buddhism. In 527 CE he settled down in the Shaolin monastery in Henan province, and inspired the development of Shaolin Kung Fu. This marked a watershed in the history of Kung Fu, because it led to a change of course, as Kung Fu became institutionalized. Before this, martial arts were known only in general sense.

Chinese martial arts, like martial arts of Greece and India, have existed before the arrival of Bodhidharma. Bodhidharma's status in martial arts is due to his role in the institutionalization of Chinese martial arts, presumably by introducing exercises, meditation, discipline, newer techniques etc. to the native fighting methods during his tenure at the Shaolin monastery.

In addition to being a master of Dhyana, Bodhidharma is also related to Yogacara (Sanskrit: "Practice of Yoga " ). He is described as a "master of the Lankavatara Sutra", and an early history of Zen in China is titled "Record of the Masters and Disciples of the Lankavatara Sutra" (Chin. Leng-ch'ieh shih-tzu chi).

It has been suggested that these techniques which are the foundation for many martial arts today were never originally intended to be utilized as methods of fighting but were a manner in which the monks could attain enlightenment while preserving their bodies' health. Gichin Funakoshi writes that during lectures on Buddhism, a number of Bodhidharma's followers succumbed to exhaustion. Daruma then presented method of developing the mind and body. The method is contained in the Ekkin Kyo (Ekkin Sutra). With it, the monks were able to recover their spiritual and physical strength.

The pavillion named after Bodhidharma is in the main building of the Shaolin monastary, the First patricarch temple built in his honor still stands in the monastary complex some distance from the main building, and the cave behind the building is still called the Bodhidharma cave. The koan "What is the intention of the first patriarch coming from the west?" was frequently used to test the student' development in Zen cultivation.

Similarities to other martial arts

Many similarities between Chinese martial arts and the practices of other cultures have been enumerated. Though similarity alone does not establish the direction of influence, nor does it rule out possible convergent evolution, these similarities provide compelling suggestions towards cross-cultural exchange.

Indian movement patterns of "Nata" were later incorporated into various martial arts. Shown here is the Nataraja pose.

Around the 3rd century BC, Patanjali wrote the Yoga Sutras, which taught how to meditate single-mindedly on points located inside one's body, which was used in later martial arts, while various mudra finger movements were taught in Yogacara Buddhism. These Yoga elements, as well as finger movements in the nata dances, were later incorporated into various martial arts.

References to martial arts are found in early Buddhist texts. The Lotus Sutra also categorized combat techniques as joint locks, fist strikes, grapples, and throws, and also referred to a martial art with dance-like movements called Nara. Other stories suggest that Siddhartha Gautama was a champion wrestler and archer before becoming the Buddha.

Knowledge of the Indian arts was carried into China by Buddhist monks. Joyotpaul Chaudhuri notes that far too much attention is given to Bodhidharma alone. Buddhist monks were active in China before Bodhidharma.

Indian Buddhist infusion was vital in the development Asian fighting systems. It is possible to trace the history of Buddhist influence on martial arts from India to Japan.

File:Matemple.jpg
Statues in an ancient hindu temple, showing warriors in combat

The Lankavatara Sutra repeatedly refers to the 108 steps. The 108 of the Yang long form and Wing Chun, taught by Yip Man having 108 movements are noted in this regard. The similarities between the posture of the "Nataraja" and bong sau and bong gurk in one hand and one foot position are also noted. The Chinese school of martial arts agrees with the South Indian school of martial arts on the principle of 108 pressure points.

The foreign connection with China's martial heritage is marked visually in several ways within the Shaolin temple. A significant aspect in this respect is the Shaolin wall painting. The painting depicts Chinese and Indian monks practicing martial arts together for spirtual edification. Doshin So, the founder of Shorinji Kempo, has described the paintings as his main inspiration.

The Discovery Channel notes "Possibly the oldest martial art in the world, Kalarippayattu is still being practiced widely today in the Indian state of Kerala. Shaolin chuan is said to have evolved from Kalarippayattu."

Similarities were also recorded by the British Broadcasting Corporation in a television documentary in 1981 titled "Kalari, the Indian way" which noted that a Southern Kalaripayattu practitioner performed martial arts identical to one found in a branch lineage from the Wong-Hon-Wing line of Tibetan Hop-Gar Kung-Fu.

Views from the martial arts community

The foreign influence is noted in the works of prominent figures across the martial arts community, including Charles C. Goodin, Hidetaka Nishiyama, Simmone Kuo, Lawrence Galante, Robert Scaglione, George A. Kirby, and George E. Mattson.

Authors, including Bruce A. Haines, Joyotpaul Chaudhari, Howard Reid, Howard W. French and Christopher Wren have noted the foreign influence. Heinrich Duomlin and Daisetz Teitaro Suzuki note the Indian foundation of Zen/Chan. Tatsuo Suzuki, Hirokazu Kanazawa, and Masutasu Oyama have asserted on the possible Greek influence on Chinese martial arts.

The foreign influence has been recognized by legendary martial arts practitioners and authorities, including Steve De Masco, Dr. William Durbin, Jhoon Rhee, Doshin So, Chojun Miyagi, Funakoshi Gichin, . Wong Kiew Kit, Tadashi Nakamura, Carlos Machado, Royler Gracie and Rickson Gracie.

Organizations such as the National Geographic Channel, British Broadcasting Corporation, the New York Times, The Hindu and the Discovery Channel to name a few, have also taken a note of the foreign influence.

Claims that that Chinese martial arts are independent of any foreign influence have been rejected by institutions, including the Gracie family, Gracie Barra, International Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu Federation, Florida Federation of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and the Shaolin temple.

In addition, journalists and writers, including June Lordi, Cezar Borkowski, Annellen M Simpkins and C Alexander Simpkins, Thomas D. Seabourne and Yeon Hwan Park, Pat Zukeran, Ervin de Castro, BJ Oropeza and Ron Rhodes, Prof. J. Roe, P. E. Katzer, Jess O'Brien and Tony Sims have noted the foreign influence on Chinese martial arts.

Opposing theories

Further information: Bodhidharma, the martial arts, and the disputed India connection

Most accounts of martial arts history have credited the foreign influence. Given the long history of cultural exchange between China and her neighbors, claiming an absolute lack of foreign influence within the Chinese martial arts may be extreme -- though the extent and manner of influence is subject to debate.

A number of martial arts historians have conducted independent research on this matter and have reached separate conclusions. Some criticisms of the "Foreign Influence" theory have included:

  • Questions on whether Bodhidharma provided more than simply religious influence upon China.
  • Questions on whether Bodhidharma was simply a legendary character.
  • Disputes over the dating of texts supposedly written by Bodhidharma.

Of note, these historians are not without criticism either. For example, historian Matsuda Ryuchi dates the Yi Jin Jing, a text often associated with Bodhidharma, to 1827. Another historian however, Lin Boyuan, dates it to over two centuries earlier in 1624. Ling Tingkan concluded that the author of the Yì Jīn Jīng must have been an "ignorant village master." This claim has also been rejected by Lin Boyuan who attributes the Yì Jīn Jīng to the Taoist priest Zining writing in 1624. Historian Paul Pelliot presents a version claiming that Bodhidharma did not exist at all, he is an entirely fictional creation, a proposal which conflicts with results of research conducted by Matsuda Ryuchi, Lin Boyuan and Ling Tingkan.

References

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  104. In his "Notes on some artists of the Six Dynasties and the Tang," Paul Pelliot asserts that all accounts of Bodhidharma are legendary.

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