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The Vedas (Sanskrit: वेद) are a large corpus of texts originating in Ancient India. They are the oldest scriptural texts of Hinduism.

Philosophies and sects that developed in the Indian subcontinent have taken differing positions on the Vedas. Schools of Indian philosophy which cite the Vedas as their scriptural authority are classified as "orthodox" (āstika). Two other Indian philosophies, Buddhism and Jainism, did not accept the authority of the Vedas and evolved into separate religions. In Indian philosophy these groups are referred to as "heterodox" or "non-Vedic" (nāstika) schools.

Dating

The Vedas are arguably the oldest surviving scriptures in the world. Most Indologists agree that a long oral tradition existed long before they were written down by the second century B.C.

Radhakrishnan and Moore sum up the prevailing academic view by saying:

"The Vedic Period is dimmed by obscurity, but it may be placed approximately between 2500 and 600 B.C."

As used by these authors, the term "Vedic Period" includes the long period of gradual pre-literary cultural developments which eventually gave rise to written texts. Gavin Flood refers to the "more sober chronology" of 1500 to 1200 BCE proposed by Max Müller for the earliest portions of the texts. (For further discussion of dating see: Vedic period)

In any case, dating is of little importance to the religious significance of the Vedas. According to strict orthodox Hindu interpreation the Vedas are apaurusheya ("not human compositions"), being supposed to have been directly revealed, and thus are called śruti ("what is heard"). Hinduism is known as the Sanatana Dharma ("Eternal Law"), referring to this belief in the ageless nature of the wisdom it embodies.

Etymology

The word veda signifies "wisdom" or "knowledge". More generally it means "Sacred knowledge, holy learning, the scriptures of the Hindus." Monier-Williams defines it more specifically as "N. of certain celebrated works which constitute the basis of the first period of the Hindu religion." It is derived from the root vid- , Sanskrit for "to know". This is in turn reconstructed as being derived from the Proto-Indo-European root "*weid-", meaning "see" or "know".

Categories of Vedic Texts

The term Vedas can refer either to the four Vedas (a specific group of texts) or more generally to a large corpus of Vedic literature that grew up after and around the four Vedas.

Only the collections (Sanskrit saṃhitā), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads are considered Veda in the strict sense. This group of texts is is called śruti ("the heard"), and are considered to contain divine wisdom, as distinct from other texts that are considered to have been composed by people, which are called smṛti ("the remembered"). This system of categorization was developed by Max Müller, and while it is subject to some imperfections it is still widely used, as Axel Michaels explains:

These classifications, which date back to Max Müller, are often not tenable for linguistic and formal reasons: There is not only one collection at any one time, but rather several handed down in separate Vedic schools; Upanişads ... are sometimes not to be distinguished from Araṇyakas ("forest books"); Brāmaṇas contain older strata of language attributed to the Saṃhitās; there are various dialects and locally prominent traditions of the Vedic schools. Nevertheless, it is advisable to stick to the division adopted by Max Müller because it follows the Indian tradition, conveys the historical sequence fairly accurately, and underlies the current editions, translations, and monographs on Vedic literature."

• The Samhita (Sanskrit saṃhitā), or "collections". The Samhitas are collections of hymns, mantras, and chants. There are four Samhitas: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda.

• The Brahmanas. These are prose texts with prescriptions for carrying out sacrificial rituals as well as comment on the meaning of the rituals. Each of the Brahmanas is associated with one of the Samhitas. The Brahmanas may either form separate texts or can be partly integrated into the text of the Samhita.

• The Aranyakas, or "forest books". These are the concluding part of the Brahmanas, containing further interpretations of rituals.

• The Upanishads are theological and philosophical works. They are mystic or spiritual interpretations of the Vedas, and are considered their putative end and essence, and thus known as Vedānta ("the end of the Vedas"). They are the basis of the Vedanta school.

The Four Vedas

In its strict sense, veda designates the four collections (Samhitas) of hymns and prayers composed for different ritualistic purposes: the Rig-Veda, Sama-Veda, Yajur-Veda, and Atharva-Veda. Of these only the first three were originally regarded as canonical (trayividya, "threefold-knowledge"); the fourth attained to this position after a long doctrinal struggle. In its widest sense, however, the term veda applies not only to these sacred texts, but also to the voluminous theological and philosophical literature attached thereto, the Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads, and Sutras (see Brahminism). Though differences exist in the language of the four Vedas, still there is such agreement on cardinal points as against later Sanskrit that the term Vedic, which is in common use for the oldest form of the language of India, is amply justified. Multiple recensions are known for each of the Vedas, through different traditional disciplines or schools (shakha) of oral transmission, but few have survived intact to the present day.

The Rig-Veda contains the oldest part of the corpus, and consists of 1028 hymns. The Sama-Veda is mostly a rearrangement of the Rig-Veda for musical rendering. The Yajur-Veda gives sacrificial prayers and the Atharva-Veda gives charms, incantations and magical formulae. In addition to these there are some stray secular material, such as legends.

The Rig-Veda

The Rig-Veda is a collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns dedicated to Rigvedic deities. Based on internal evidence (philological and linguistic), the Rigveda was composed roughly between 1700–1100 BCE (the early Vedic period) in the Punjab (Sapta Sindhu) region of the Indian subcontinent, putting it among the world's oldest religious texts, as well as among the oldest texts of any Indo-European language. It was preserved in India over centuries by oral tradition alone and was probably not put in writing until Late Antiquity or even the early Middle Ages.

There are strong linguistic and cultural similarities between the Rigveda and the early Iranian Avesta, deriving from the Proto-Indo-Iranian times, often associated with the early Andronovo culture of ca. 2000 BC.

Today, this text is revered by Hindus around the world, primarily in India and Nepal. Its verses are recited at prayers, religious functions and other auspicious occasions.

The Yajur-Veda

The Yajur-Veda ("Veda of sacrificial prayers") consists also largely of verses borrowed from the Rig-Veda. Its purpose was also practical, but, unlike the Sama-Veda, it was compiled to apply to the entire sacrificial rite, not merely the Soma offering. There are two recensions of this Veda known as the "Black" and "White" Yajur-Veda. The origin and meaning of these designations are not clear. The White Yajur-Veda contains only the verses and sayings necessary for the sacrifice, while explanations exist in a separate work; the Black incorporates explanations and directions in the work itself, often immediately following the verses. Of the black there are again four recensions, all showing the same arrangement, but differing in many other respects, notably in matters of phonology and accent. By the Hindus the Yajur-Veda was regarded as the most important of all the Vedas for the practice of the sacrificial rites.

The Sama-Veda

The Sama-Veda (Sanskrit sāmaveda ) is the "Veda of chants" or "Knowledge of melodies". The name of this Veda is from the Sanskrit word sāman which means a metrical hymn or song of praise. It consists of 1549 stanzas, taken entirely (except 78) from the Rig-Veda. Some of the Rig-Veda verses are repeated more than once. Including repetitions, there are a total of 1875 verses numbered in the Sama-Veda recension published by Griffith. Sāmveda, thus is a collection of Rig-vedic hymns which could be sung. The hymns were modified just enough for singing -- geetrupā mantrāh sāmāni.

Its purpose was practical, to serve as a songbook for the chanting priests or "singers" who conducted the liturgy. A priest who chants hymns from the Sama-Veda during a ritual is called an udgātṛ, a word derived from the Sanskrit root udgai ("to sing" or "to chant"). A similar word in English might be "cantor". The styles of chanting are important to the liturgical use of the verses. The hymns were to be sung according to certain fixed melodies; hence the name of the collection.

The Atharva-Veda

The Artharva-Veda is the "Knowledge of the Fire Priests ". An atharvan was a priest who worshipped fire and Soma.

The Atharva-Veda Saṃhitā has 760 hymns, and about one-sixth of the hymns are in common with the Rig-Veda. Most of the verses are metrical, but some are in prose.

It was compiled around 900 BCE, although some of its material may go back to the time of the Rig Veda, and some parts of the Atharva-Veda are older than the Rig-Veda.

The Atharvana-Veda is preserved in two editions, the Paippalāda and Śaunaka. According to Apte it has nine schools (shakhas).

Unlike the other three Vedas, the Atharvana-Veda has less connection with sacrifice. It consists chiefly of spells and incantations, concerned with protection against demons and disaster, spells for the healing of diseases, for long life, etc.

R. C. Zaehner notes that:

"The latest of the four Vedas, the Atharva-Veda, is, as we have seen, largely composed of magical texts and charms, but here and there we find cosmological hymns which anticipate the Upanishads, -- hymns to Skambha, the 'Support', who is seen as the first principle which is both the material and efficient cause of the universe, to Prāna, the 'Breath of Life', to Vāc, the 'Word', and so on.

The famous seed mantra Om (ॐ) first appeared in the Atharva-Veda, and later was identified with absolute reality (brahman) in the Taittitrīya Upanishad.

Gavin Flood discusses the relatively late acceptance of the Atharva-Veda as follows:

"There were originally only three priests associated with the first three Saṃhitās, for the Brahman as overseer of the rites does not appear in the Ṛg Veda and is only incorporated later, thereby showing the acceptance of the Atharva Veda, which had been somewhat distinct from the other Saṃhitās and identified with the lower social strata, as being of equal standing with the other texts."

Theological Traditons

Study of the extensive body of Vedic texts has been organized into a number of different theological schools or branches (Sanskrit śākhā, literally "branch" or "limb") each of which specialized in learning certain texts. A Vedic text may have a number of theological schools associated with it.

Study

See also patha.

Elaborate methods for preserving the text (memorizing by heart instead of writing), subsidiary disciplines (Vedanga), exegetical literature, etc., were developed in the Vedic schools. Sayana, from the 14th century, is known for his elaborate commentaries on the Vedic texts. While much evidence suggests that everyone was equally allowed to study the Vedas and many Vedic "authors" were women, the later dharmashastras, from the Sutra age, dictate that women and Shudras were neither required nor allowed to study the Veda. These dharmashastras regard the study of the Vedas a religious duty of the three upper varnas (Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas). In modern times, Vedic studies are crucial in the understanding of Indo-European linguistics, as well as ancient Indian history.

Many forms of Hinduism encourage the Vedic mantras to be interpreted as liberally and as philosophically as possible, unlike the texts of the three Abrahamic religions. In fact, over-literal interpretation of the mantras is actually discouraged, and even the three layers of commentaries (Brahmanas, Aranyakas, and Upanishads), which form an integral part of the śruti literature, interpret the seemingly polytheistic, ritualistic, and highly complex Samhitas in a philosophical and metaphorical way to explain the "hidden" concepts of God (Ishwara), the Supreme Being (Brahman) and the soul or the self (Atman). Many Hindus believe that the very sound of the Vedic mantras is purifying for the environment and the human mind. Each may contain a thousand layers of meaning.

Upavedas

The Upavedas are derived from the Vedas and are specific applications of the teachings of the Vedas. The main Upavedas are:

1. Ayurveda - Indian healing system, it lays more stress on living with nature instead of fighting it, hence preventive instead of corrective medicine.

2. Dhanur Veda - Martial arts.

Ayurveda and Dhanurveda have points in common. They both work with Marma, or natural Pran (Life Energy) that flows in the body. Ayruveda heals the body, while Dhanurveda is used for defending the body. This concept is also known to Chinese as Acupuncture and related Chinese Martial Arts.

3. Stahapatya Veda- Architecture, sculpture and geomancy. Used especially for Temple design.

4. Gandharv Veda- Music, poetry and dance.

Some other fields like Jyotish (Indian Astrology), Tantra (based on the Puranas, which are in turn based on Vedas), Shiksha and Vyakara (Grammar and pronunciation) are also based on the Vedas.

See also

• Hindu Philosophy
• Pandit
• Vedic chant
• Vedic civilization/EB 1911
• Shakha

Notes

1. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press; 1957. Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4. p. 3.
2. Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. p. 82. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.
3. Radhakrishnan and Moore, op. cit., pp. xvii-xviii.
4. Flood, op. cit., p. 37.
5. V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 887.
6. Radhakrishnan and Moore, op. cit., p. 3.
7. V. S. Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 887.
8. V. S. Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 887.
9. Monier-Williams, p. 1015.
10. Monier-Williams, p. 1015.
11. V. S. Apte, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 856
12. Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton University Press: 2004. p. 51. ISN 0-691-08953-1.
13. Michaels, op. cit., p. 51.
14. India: What Can It Teach Us: A Course of Lectures Delivered Before the University of Cambridge by F. Max Müller; World Treasures of the Library of Congress Beginnings by Irene U. Chambers, Michael S. Roth; some writers out of the maintream claim to trace astronomical references in the Rigveda, dating it to as early as 4000 BC, a date corresponding to the Neolithic late Mehrgarh culture; summarized by Klaus Klostermaier in a 1998 presentation
15. The earliest surviving manuscripts date to the 11th century
16. V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. p. 981.
17. Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. op. cit., p. 51
18. For 1875 total verses, see numbering given in Ralph T. H. Griffith edition. Griffith's introduction mentions recension history for his text. Repetitions may be found by consulting the cross-index in Griffith pp. 491-99.
19. V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary. p. 271.
20. V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 37.
21. Michaels, op. cit., p. 56.
22. Michaels, op. cit., p. 56.
23. Flood, op. cit., p. 37.
24. Michaels, op. cit., p. 56.
25. Michaels, op. cit., p. 56.
26. V. S. Apte. A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 37.
27. Flood, op. cit., p. 36.
28. Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A. op. cit., p. 3.
29. Michaels, op. cit., p. 56.
30. R. C. Zaehner. Hindu Scriptures. (Everyman's Library: London, 1966) p. vii.
31. Flood, op. cit., p. 222.
32. Flood, op. cit., p. 42.
33. Flood, Gavin. op. cit., p. 39.

References

Overviews

• Flood, Gavin. An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, 1996. ISBN 0-521-43878-0.

• Michaels, Axel. Hinduism: Past and Present. Princeton University Press: 2004. ISN 0-691-08953-1.

• Radhakrishnan, Sarvepalli; and Moore, Charles A. A Source Book in Indian Philosophy. Princeton University Press, 1957; Princeton paperback 12th edition, 1989. ISBN 0-691-01958-4.

• Walker, Benjamin Hindu World: An Encyclopedic Survey of Hinduism, (Two Volumes), Allen & Unwin, London, 1968; Praeger, New York, 1968; Munshiram Manohar Lal, New Delhi, 1983; Harper Collins, New Delhi, 1985; Rupa, New Delhi, 2005, ISBN 81-291-0670-1.

• Winternitz, Moriz. History of Indian Literature. Vol. 1 (of two volumes), p. 1. (Calcutta 1926)

Philological

• Maurice Bloomfield, A Vedic Concordance, Harvard Oriental Series, 1907
• Klaus Mylius, Geschichte der altindischen Literatur, Wiesbaden (1983).

Religious Interpretations

• Sri Aurobindo ,The Secret of the Veda. Sri Aurobindo Ashram, Pondicherry. 1972.

External links

Electronic texts:

• The Vedas at sacred-texts.com
• Vedas: Rig, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva

Discussion:

• Veda and Upanishads by S. Beck

• Hindu texts
• Sanskrit texts
• Vedas
• Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
• Indo-European mythology