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Homosexuality may refer to:

• A sexual orientation characterized by æsthetic attraction, romantic love, and sexual desire exclusively for members of the same sex or with the same gender identity (e.g. male or female).
• Sexual behavior with another of the same sex or gender regardless of sexual orientation or gender identity.
• A sexual identity or self-identification, which may or may not imply exclusively homosexual behavior or exclusively homosexual attraction.

Homosexuality is usually contrasted with heterosexuality and sometimes bisexuality.

These definitions are complicated by the fact that there are several different biological and psychosocial components to sex and gender, and a given person may not cleanly fit into a particular category. Some people even find the notion of distinct genders (and distinct sexual orientations based upon them) to be offensive. The complexities of sex and gender are explained in the article on sex. Further complexities are explained in the article Homosexuality and transgender.

The boundary-drawing problem between homosexuality and bisexuality is discussed in the article sexual orientation.

Etymology

Main article: Terminology of homosexuality

The word homosexual translates literally as "of the same sex," being a hybrid of the Greek prefix homo- meaning "same" and the Latin root sex- meaning "sex."

The first known appearance of the term homosexual in print is found in an anonymously published 1869 German pamphlet written by Karl-Maria Kertbeny.

Usage and related terms

Although some early writers used the adjective homosexual to refer to any single-gender context (such as an all-girls' school), today the term implies a sexual aspect. The term homosocial is now used to describe single-sex contexts that are not specifically sexual.

Derogatory terms include fag or faggot, which generally refer to gay men; poofter, used mostly in the United Kingdom; queer, generally inclusive of anyone who is not exclusively heterosexual, but also reclaimed as a "pride" word by many gays and academics; homo; and dyke, which refers to lesbians. See Homophobia

The term homosexual can be used as a noun or adjective to describe persons as well as their sexual orientation, sexual history, or self-identification. However, many recommend that the term homosexual be avoided, for its use can cause offence. When referring to a person (as opposed to a sexual behavior), gay man or lesbian are preferred.

Homosexual places emphasis on sexuality and is to be avoided when not describing such. Some people also feel the term is too clinical and thus somewhat dehumanising. Another pejorative term, although falling out of use since the 1930s is 'Turner'. There are two theories as to the origins of this slang word for homosexual: 1. Late 19th century east London slang in homosexual circles, signifying an ostensibly heterosexual young man who may be induced to experiment with homoeroticism and ultimately to ‘turn’ (i.e. to become a fully-fledged practising homosexual). This usage appears in Dickens’s ‘Pickwick Papers’, when Tupman explains to Snodgrass, ‘It is said he will not bend, though you may find, sir, that he may yet be a turner’. 2. A more discreet version of the slang pejorative ‘bender’, signifying a homosexual male. ‘Turn’ here signifies ‘turning around’, or ‘turning one’s back’ in order to receive phallic penetration.

The term "gay" may refer to all homosexual people, or only to homosexual men, which is why "gay man" may be preferred. Some people find the use of the term "gay" when used to refer to both men as women as offensive. "Lesbian" refers to homosexual women.

Given how confusing and overloaded these various terms can be, when specificity is important, new terms are starting to be pressed into service. For example, Men who have sex with men, or MSM for short, is sometimes used in the medical community when specifically discussing sexual behavior (regardless of orientation or self-identification).

Biology

Bisexual continuum

Main articles: Sexual Behavior in the Human Male & Sexual Behavior in the Human Female.

Many studies, most notably the Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) and the Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) by Alfred Kinsey have found that the majority of humans have had homosexual experiences and are bisexual. Only a minority of people were found (5-10%) to be exclusively heterosexual or homosexual. Conversely, an even smaller minority of people appear to have had equal sexual experiences with both genders indicating an attraction scale or continuum. Other studies have suggested these reports exaggerated the occurrence of bisexuality and homosexuality in human populations. However, his idea of a sexuality continuum still enjoys wide acceptance today and is supported by findings in the human and animal kingdoms as well as biological studies of structural brain differences between those belonging to different sexual orientations. Many argue that the discrepancies between public and private admissions regarding sexual orientation are due to negative societal attitudes regarding same-sex intercourse.

Genetics

See Genetics and sexual orientation.

Hormones

Researchers in the McFadden and Breedlove studies have found evidence correlating pre-natal hormones to both female and male homosexuality. They have found that females and males exposed to high levels of the sexual hormone androgen as fetuses are pre-dominantly homosexual. This may provide explanation of gay men having a greater number of lifetime sexual partners as well as their larger penis sizes when contrasted to heterosexual males. Auditory systems and fingerprints, both related to androgen levels have also had such results when distinguishing homosexuals from heterosexuals.

Darwinism

Homosexuality on an evolutionary scale consists chiefly of two theories. Scientists interpreting the possibility of male homosexuality being inherited in abnormally fertile females have theorized this may be a biological response to rapid overpopulation through making younger offspring more likely to be homosexual and thus not reproducing. Georgetown University explaining the widespread homosexuality and attractions in adolescence has theorized this may be an integral part of bonding to reduce inter-species aggression later in life when many become bisexual.

The Animal Kingdom

Main article: Homosexuality in animals

Homosexuality is common in the Animal Kingdom, especially in species closer to humans on the evolutionary scale, such as the great apes. Some believe that this behavior has its origin in male social organization and social dominance. However others reject that theory citing homosexuality in species that mate for life and female homosexuality.

• Gay male Penguin couples have been documented to mate for life, build nests together, and use a stone to replace sitting on an egg in the nest. In 2004 the Central Park Zoo in the United States replaced one gay male couple's stone with a fertile egg which they then raised as their own offspring . A German zoo has also reported homosexuality among its penguins.

• Courtship, mounting, and full anal penetration between bulls is common among American bison. The Mandan nation Okipa festival concludes with a ceremonial enactment of this behavior, to "ensure the return of the buffalo in the coming season."

• Homosexuality in male sheep (found in 6% - 10% of rams) is associated with variations in cerebral mass distribution and chemical activity. They concluded that biological factors are at play. This study replicated similar findings in humans that approximately 10% of males are homosexual as well as the brains of homosexual males are different. .

Malleability

Main articles: Causes of sexual orientation & Homosexuality & Medical Science

Considerable debate continues over what determines a person's sexual orientation with regard to genetic vs. hormonal factors. A much smaller dialogue remains on whether that orientation is discretionary. Accordingly to the widely accepted views of Kinsey's sexual continuum most agree that only minorities of humans are "truly" homosexual or heterosexual and that the majority are bisexual. The presently held mainstream view is that regardless of your specific sexual orientation it cannot be changed and those who have had "success" are more appropriately bisexual.

"Permanent"

The great majority of workers in medicine and the sciences, as well as gay organizations, claim that sexual orientation is innate, fixed and unchangeable, and that it is impossible to change homosexuality into heterosexuality, or vice-versa. They hold that the innate factors that in the majority of cases direct male sexual arousal to females (and vice-versa), in the case of the gay minority direct arousal toward those of the same gender.

To support this argument, they point to the many reports of both straight and gay-identified individuals who claim having discovered their orientation at an early age (often in pre-adolescence). In the case of queer youth, many report initial distress in response to this realization. Their claims are consistent with statistics showing that gay-identified youth are several times more likely than non-gay youth to attempt suicide .

Some scientific studies suggest gay men's anatomical brain structure is similar to that of heterosexual women and different from their heterosexual male counterparts. Other studies such as the March 2000 Breedlove finger length report and the July 2000 University of Texas study of neurological auditory response suggest that while lesbians show characteristics intermediate between heterosexual men and women gay men are "hyper-masculinized". Some researchers have found that if one of a set of identical twins self-identifies as a gay man or lesbian, the chance of the other identifying as gay is increased to 50%, although other researchers' twin studies have found widely differing percentages.

Attempts to modify sexual orientation (known as "conversion therapies" and so far targeted only at queer-identified individuals) have been condemned by numerous professional organizations in the scientific field for causing depression - sometimes leading to suicide - and being of little value. In 2001 Dr. Robert Spitzer, professor of psychiatry at Columbia University announced a study indicating that reparative therapy has a failure rate on the order of 99.98%. The American Psychological Association in 1997 passed a resolution declaring therapists in these groups engaged in such conversion therapies to be following unethical and unhealthy practice.

The American Academy of Pediatrics, American Counseling Association, American Association of School Administrators, American Federation of Teachers, American Psychological Association, American School Health Association, Interfaith Alliance Foundation, National Association of School Psychologists, National Association of Social Workers, and National Education Association developed and endorsed a statement in 1999 reading:

• The most important fact about 'reparative therapy,' also sometimes known as 'conversion therapy,' is that it is based on an understanding of homosexuality that has been rejected by all the major health and mental health professions. The American Academy of Pediatrics, the American Counseling Association, the American Psychiatric Association, the American Psychological Association, the National Association of School Psychologists, and the National Association of Social Workers, together representing more than 477,000 health and mental health professionals, have all taken the position that homosexuality is not a mental disorder and thus there is no need for a 'cure.' ...health and mental health professional organizations do not support efforts to change young people's sexual orientation through 'reparative therapy' and have raised serious concerns about its potential to do harm.

"Changeable"

Various psychologists, anthropologists and sociologists including Sigmund Freud, Margaret Mead, and Michael Foucault have held that neither exclusive heterosexuality nor exclusive homosexuality are innate and only exist due to the effects of outside societal or developmental influences on the individual. In the same vein writer Gore Vidal once remarked that "there is no such thing as a homosexual or heterosexual person. There are only homo- or heterosexual acts. Most people are a mixture of impulses if not practices, and what anyone does with a willing partner is of no social or cosmic significance". The lesbian-feminist movement has historically held the position that sexual orientation is socially and psychologically created and openly encouraged women to choose lesbianism over "compulsory heterosexuality"(as Adrienne Rich put it in her 1980 essay "Compulsory Heterosexuality and Lesbian Existance") for the sake of women's liberation.

Conservative religious congregations maintain that being gay is a self-indulgent transgressive choice, like being a fast driver, and state it is learned behavior. Thus it is their position that all homosexuality is of a preferential nature. Some of the organizations that believe homosexuality is a choice and a violation of their religious creeds offer "conversion therapies" for lesbians and gay men in an attempt to change their sexual orientation.

Utilizing a secular approach, the American National Association for Research and Therapy of Homosexuality, and some non-Western organizations, also maintain that "conversion therapy" can change sexual orientation. They claim that sexual orientation is not genetic, that it is changeable, and to regard sexual orientation as permanent is incorrect. The implications of this view on the construction of heterosexuality have not been fully explored.

Apart from the issue of the changeability of one's basic orientation, the manifestation of one's sexual orientation seems to be liable to a great amount of variability. Thus it is common for homosexual individuals in hetero-normative societies to love, marry, and have children with individuals of the opposite sex, a practice done for social reasons in intolerant environments, as a cover for one's orientation (such relationships are known as a "beards.")

The opposite situation seems to obtain in homo-normative societies, where men whose primary attraction may be to the opposite sex nonetheless engage in - and enjoy - the homosexual practices prescribed by their respective culture. Both of these adaptations are forms of situational sexual behavior.

Sociology

Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over the centuries, from requiring all males to engage in relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, to proscribing it under penalty of death. See Violence against gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and the transgendered

Incidence

Main article: Demographics of sexual orientation.

Estimates of the modern prevalence of homosexuality vary considerably. They are complicated by differing or even ambiguous definitions of homosexuality, and by fluctuations over time and according to location. Recent estimates in Western countries range from 1% to 10%.

Historically, however, in areas where same-sex relationships were integrated in the culture, such as Ancient Greece, parts of Melanesia, Renaissance Florence, and pre-modern Japan, romantic relationships were engaged in by a majority of the male population.

Variants

A number of researchers into the social construction of same-sex love and sexuality have suggested that it is not correct to speak about homosexuality. Instead they point out that same-sex relations have been constructed in various ways by different societies. These classifications are grouped by anthropologist Stephen O. Murray into three different categories:

• Egalitarian, exemplified by modern forms of relationship between partners of similar age and gender. See Sexual minority cultures
• Age structured, exemplified by the erotic apprenticeship enaged in by novice samurai with the more experienced warriors. See shudo
• Gender structured, exemplified by shamanic gender-changing practices seen in native societies. See Two-Spirit

Though in any society one particular form of homosexuality usually predominates, other forms are likely to co-exist. As historian Rictor Norton points out in his Intergenerational and Egalitarian Models, in Ancient Greece egalitarian relationships co-existed (though to some extent "in the closet") with the institution of pederasty; and a fascination with adolescent youths continues to be a part of modern queer culture, just as a fascination with adolescent girls continues to concentrate the minds of straight men.

See Anthropological classification of homosexuality.

Polemic

Main article: Anti-gay slogan

Same-sex love practices have been the subject of a continuing debate dating back at least to Classical Greece. In antiquity, and in countries not under the sway of Abrahamic beliefs, the debates usually took the form of debating which love is best, the love of women or the love of boys, unlike more recent discussions which frame the question in terms of "right" and "wrong." Recent advances in sociological studies and other discourse such as queer theory have brought a measure of scientific rigor to what had been mostly a philosophical debate.

Con

• "Same-sex love is against nature" This charge dates back to Classical Greece, where it was first articulated by Plato in his "Laws."
• "It is condemned by God." Expressed by early Christian exegetes (claimed to be the moral of the Sodom and Gomorrah story), and by Muhammad in the Qur'an.
• "It leads to plagues and natural disasters." Advanced by Christian authorities in Renaissance Italy.
• "It is abuse of the young." Encountered in "Erotes," a dialogue of the early Christian era by "Lucian."
• "It is a dissipation of one's vital force." Also in Lucian.

Pro

• "It is commonplace in nature." Based on zoologists' observations of many different species (see Bagemihl in References.
• "Suppressing it alters the balance of nature." A Melanesian belief documented by Bagemihl.
• "It foments close friendships and independent thinking." Also in Lucian
• "The male form is superior to the female form." Medieval Arabic text included in the Arabian Nights (The Debate Between the Wise Woman and the Sage).

Religion

Main article: Religion and homosexuality

Religion has played a significant role in forming a culture’s views towards homosexuality. Historically the negative perceptions have been limited to the Abrahamic religions. Groups not influenced by the Abrahamic religions have commonly regarded homosexuality sacred or neutral. In the wake of colonialism and imperialism undertaken by countries of the Abrahamic faiths some non-Abrahamic religious groups have adopted new attitudes antagonistic towards homosexuality. For example, when India became part of the British Empire sodomy laws were introduced while there was no basis for them in Hindu faith, this led to persecution of their society and religion. India still retains portions due to this past foreign influence as of 2005. This experienced was also repeated by other Abrahamic religious nations upon their acquisitions throughout Africa, Asia and the Americas.

Atheists, Agnostics or Secularists

Those who are atheist, agnostic or secularist have been consistently shown to be tolerant of homosexuality as well as supportive of gay-rights legislation. Countries with significant populations of these groups are often among the most accepting of gay citizens.

Abrahamic

The world's three major Abrahamic religions of Christianity, Islam, and Judaism descended from the patriarch Abraham have historically been the primary sources condemning homosexuality in the world. The first recorded law against homosexuality dates to 550 BC during the Babylonian captivity of the Jewish people, it is recorded in Leviticus, and it requires the death penalty for homosexuality between men. It is largely seen as a distinction between Judaism, the first Abrahamic faith, and Paganism on par with worshiping "false gods". At the time of its formulation homosexuality was incorporated into many Pagan religions. However in modern times some major denominations within these religions have accepted homosexuality comparing it to religiously sanctioned slavery and thus an anachronism of the past.

Christianity

Main articles: Homosexuality and Christianity: History and Homosexuality and Christianity

The attitude of Early Christians toward homosexuality has been much debated. One side has cited denunciations of sodomy in the writings of the era, such as in the Didache and in the writings of St. Justin Martyr, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, St. Cyprian, Eusebius, St. Basil the Great, St. John Chrysostom, St. Augustine, and in doctrinal sources such as the "Apostolic Constitutions" - for example, Eusebius of Caesarea's statement which condemns "the union of women with women and men with men". Others claim that passages have been mistranslated or they do not refer to homosexuality.

Among the prominent Christian figures known to have had same-sex relationships, Richard I of England had a relationship with King Philip II of France, Ralph Archbishop of Tours had his lover John installed as bishop of Orleans with agreement of both the King of France and Pope Urban II, and a number of popes and cardinals, especially during the Renaissance, also shared the popular tastes for handsome youths, so prevalent at the time in northern Italy.

Other Christians of the time were critical of homosexuality. St. Thomas Aquinas denounced sodomy as second only to bestiality (sex with animals) as the worst of all sexual sins, and St. Hildegard's book "Scivias", which was officially approved by Pope Eugenius III, related visions in which same-sex relations are condemned as "perverted forms".

Islam

Main article: Homosexuality and Islam

Same-sex intercourse is prohibited in Islam, which teaches that such intercourse is a violation of the natural boundaries set by Allah (the Arabic word for God). Note that homosexuality, as an attraction, is not against the Sharia, which governs the physical actions, and not the inner thoughts and feelings. It is the physical action of same-sex intercourse that is punishable under the Sharia.

Historically the punishment has been less severe compared to its Abrahamic counterparts: Judaism and Christianity. The Koran states that if a person commits the sin they can repent and save their life, though there are hadiths that later prescribe the death penalty. Early Islamic cultures, especially ones where homosexuality was entrenched into their culture by previous Pagan culture were renowned for their lenient attitudes towards homosexuality. They reconciled their new religion using a hadith ascribed to Muhammad, “He who loves and remains chaste and conceals his secret and dies, dies a martyr”.

The result was a religion that allowed love between those of the same gender as long as they did not have sexual intercourse. Ibn Hazm, Ibn Daud, Al-Mutamid, Abu Nuwas, and many others used this edict to write extensively and openly of love between men while proclaiming to be chaste. However, in order for the transgression to be proven, at least four men or eight women must bear witness against the accused, thus making it very difficult to persecute those who did not remain celibate in the privacy of their homes.

Judaism

Main article: Homosexuality and Judaism

While sexual intercourse between men is explicitly forbidden in the Torah, which puts it on the same level as idolatry and makes it punishable by death, most Jewish movements have accepted homosexuality in the twentieth century.

Buddhism

Main article: Homosexuality and Buddhism

There is no definitive view in Buddhism, though different schools hold different attitudes, depending largely on whether they train the mind by reducing desires or by using the energy of desire to effect awakening experiences. It is common to see condemnation of homosexuality by Buddhists in societies within Asia largely influenced by Abrahamic religions. However, this is a recent development and has no scriptural basis. Prior to colonization by agents of Abrahamic countries, homosexuality was no less privileged than other forms of love. In Japan, the practice was "invented" by the Bodhisattva Manjusri of wisdom and the sage Kukai, while in China it is attributed to the Yellow Emperor, the father of China. Indian, Tibetan, Chinese, Southeast Asian and Japanese cultures, where Buddhism was or remains one of the chief religions, have been historically unconcerned with the gender of sexual activity or the object of desire.

Hinduism

Main article: Homosexuality and Hinduism

The Indian Kama Sutra written in the third century c. e. contains passages describing hijras performing oral sex to men with tips to maximize pleasure. Prior to British colonization of India hijras were not the only homosexual activity, many engaged in a form of pederasty which was openly practiced by Muslims and Sikhs in the north while being overlooked in the south by Hindus. The terms gand-mara (anus beater), gando (ass-taker) and ganga ("anuser") were coined during this time period. During British control Hinduism became markedly antagonistic to homosexuality.

In Hinduism many divinities are androgynous with some changing sex to participate in homoerotic behavior.

Paganism

Main articles: Pederasty, Mythology of same-sex love

In Greco-Roman religion same-sex love was integrated in sacred texts and rituals, understandable since most followers were open to romantic engagements with either sex. Certain surviving myths depict homosexual bonds (see History), sanctified by divinities modeling such relationships. See Zeus and Ganymede as an example.

The Sumerian religion also held homosexuality sacred. It also was incorporated into various New World religions, such as the Aztec. It is thought to have been common in shamanic practice.

Divinities who engaged in same-sex love

Main article: Mythology of same-sex love

Gilgamesh, Enkidu, Poseidon, Pelops, Zeus, Ganymede, Laius, Chrysippus, Iphis, Ianthe, Heracles, Iolaus, Hylas, Abderus, Apollo, Orpheus, Hyacinthus, Cyparisus, Pan, Daphnis, Achilles, Patroclus, Narcissus, Ameinias, Xochipilli

Law

Main articles: Homosexuality laws of the world & Same-sex Marriage

The relationship between the moral condemnation of the gay community and its legal status is complicated. For instance, in England buggery was a crime under medieval canon law because it was banned by the Church. However, prosecutions for this offence died out. Sexual activity between those of the same sex was formally banned by Parliament in the 19th century as one of a range of sexual offences, alongside sex with under-age girls, as part of an expression of a general moral outrage related to events of that time.

State-sponsored violence against gay men and lesbians occurs largely throughout those cultures under the sway of the Christian, Judaic and (to a lesser extent) Islamic religions. One recent egregious example of genocide by a genetically based (rather than religiously-based) doctrine, was the attempted extermination of [[History of