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Domestic Guinea Pig

Scientific classification
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Rodentia
Suborder:	Hystricomorpha
Family:	Caviidae
Subfamily:	Caviinae
Genus:	Cavia
Species:	C. porcellus
Binomial name
*Cavia porcellus* (Erxleben, 1777)

Guinea pigs (also called cavies after their scientific name) are rodents belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia. Despite their common name, the animals are not pigs, nor do they come from Guinea. They are originally native to the Andes, and while they are no longer extant in the wild, they are closely related to several species which are commonly found in the grassy plains and plateaus of this region. The guinea pig plays an important role in the folk culture of indigenous South Americans, especially as a food source, but also as an implement in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies. Since the 1960s, the guinea pig has become increasingly important as a staple food in the Andes, and efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America.

In Western societies, the guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet since its introduction by European traders in the sixteenth century. Because of its docile nature, the relative ease of caretaking, and its responsiveness to handling and feeding, the guinea pig continues to be a popular pet choice. Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide, and a large number of specialized breeds of guinea pig, with varying coat colors and compositions, are cultivated by breeders.

"Guinea pig" is also used as a by-word in English for a subject of experimentation; this usage became common in the first half of the twentieth century. Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the seventeenth century; the animals were frequently used in scientific contexts in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, but have since been largely replaced by other rodents, such as mice and rats. They are still used in research primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes, tuberculosis, scurvy, and pregnancy complications.

History

The common guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by mountain tribes in the Andean region of South America (present-day Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia). Statues dating from ca. 500 BC to 500 AD which depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador. They continue to be a food source in the region; most households in the Andean highlands raise the animal, which subsists off the family's vegetable scraps in kitchens. Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs abound; they are exchanged as gifts, used in customary social and religious ceremonies, and are frequently referenced in spoken metaphors. They also play a role in some traditional healing rituals by folk doctors, or curanderos, who use the animals in treatments for diseases such as jaundice, rheumatism, arthritis, and typhus. They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick, and are seen as a medium through which supernatural healing occurs. The animal may also be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether or not the cure was effective. These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes, where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted.

Spanish, Dutch and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe, where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty, including Queen Elizabeth I. The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547, in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola, the animal must have been introduced there by Spanish travelers. The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Konrad Gesner. Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777; it is an amalgam of Pallas's generic designation (1766) and Linnaeus's specific conferral (1758).

Name

The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus, with porcellus being Latin for "little pig". Cavia is derived from the Portuguese çavia (now savia), which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá, meaning rat. Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo (pl. cuyes, cuyos) in the Spanish of Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Paradoxically, breeders tend to use the more formal "cavy" to describe the animal, while in scientific and laboratory contexts it is far more commonly referred to as "guinea pig".

How the animals came to be thought of as "pigs" is not clear. They are built somewhat like a pig, with a large head relative to the body, a stout neck, and a rounded rump with no tail of any consequence; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs, and they also spend a large amount of time eating. They can survive for long periods of time in small quarters, like a 'pig pen', and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe.

The animal's name carries porcine connotations in many European languages. The German word for them is Meerschweinchen, literally "little sea pigs". This derives from nautical history: sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs, which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat; Meerschwein is German for porpoise, which was another food source for sailors. The French term is Cochon d'Inde (Indian pig); the Dutch used to call it guinees biggetje (Guinean piglet), and in Portuguese the guinea pig is sometimes referred to as porquinho da Índia (little Indian pig). This is not universal; for example, the common Spanish word is conejillo de Indias (little rabbit of India / the Indies).

The origin of "guinea" in "guinea pig" is even harder to explain. One theory is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea, leading people to think they had originated there. "Guinea" was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far-off, unknown country, and so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal's foreignness. Another theory suggests the "guinea" in the name is a corruption of "Guiana", an area in South America, though the animals are not native to that region. A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold as the closest thing to a pig one could get for a guinea coin; this theory is untenable, because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663, and William Harvey used the term "Ginny-pig" as early as 1653. Others believe "guinea" may be an alteration of the word coney; guinea pigs were referred to as "pig coneys" in Edward Topsell's 1607 treatise on quadrupeds.

Traits and environment

Guinea pigs are large for rodents, weighing between 1 and 2.5 pounds (700-1200 g), and measuring 8–10 inches (20–25 cm) long. They typically live an average of four to five years, and occasionally as long as eight years. According to the 1997 Guinness Book of Records the longest living guinea pig survived 15 years.

Natural habitat

Cavia porcellus is no longer found in the wild. However, some closely related species of cavies, such as Cavia aperea and Cavia tschudii, are still commonly found in various regions of South America. Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of the cow. They are social, living in the wild in small groups which consist of several females (sows), a male (boar), and the young (which in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature are called pups). They move together in groups (herds) eating grass or other vegetation, and do not store food. While they do not burrow or build nests, they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals, as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation. They are crepuscular, tending to be most active during dawn and dusk, when it is harder for predators to spot them.

Domestication

Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more; groups of sows, or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations. Groups of boars may also get along, provided that their cage has enough space, they are introduced at an early age, and no females are present. Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts, and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between. Activity is scattered randomly over the 24 hours of the day; aside from avoidance of intense light, no regular circadian patterns are apparent.

Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages, though some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs will dedicate entire rooms to their pets. Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used, although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot (ulcerative pododermatitis). "Cubes and Coroplast" (or C&C) style cages are now a common choice. Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material. Bedding made from red cedar and pine, both softwoods, were commonly used in past decades but are now believed to contain harmful phenols (aromatic hydrocarbons) and oils. Safer beddings include those made from hardwoods (such as aspen or hemp); paper products and corn cob are other alternatives. Guinea pigs tend to be messy with their cages; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them, and their urine crystallizes on cage surfaces and can be difficult to remove. After cage cleaning, a guinea pig will typically urinate and drag the lower body across the floor of the cage in order to mark its territory.

Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species. Cohousing of guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections, and feral rodents may act aggressively towards the guinea pig. Larger animals may regard the guinea pig as prey, though some (such as dogs) can be trained to accept the animal. Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits. Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage. However, as lagomorphs, rabbits have different nutritional requirements, and so the two species cannot be fed the same food. Rabbits may also harbor diseases (such as the respiratory infections Bordetella and Pasteurella), which guinea pigs are susceptible to. Even the dwarf rabbit is much stronger than the guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury.

Behavior

Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food; they can accurately remember the learned path for weeks and months. Their strongest problem solving strategy is moving. While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles, they cannot climb, and are not particularly agile. However, they startle extremely easily, and will either freeze in place for long periods of time or run for cover with rapid, darting motions when they sense danger. Larger groups of startled guinea pigs will "stampede", running in haphazard directions as a means of confusion. When excited, guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air (known as "popcorning"). They are also exceedingly good swimmers.

Unlike many other rodents, guinea pigs do not participate in social grooming, though they regularly self-groom. A milky-white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process. Groups of boars will often chew each others' hair, but this (along with biting, especially of the ears) is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group, rather than a social gesture.

Guinea pigs have poor sense of sight, but well-developed senses of hearing and olfaction. Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species. Some sounds are:

Wheek or Whistle- A loud noise that is essentially onomatopoeic. An expression of general excitement, it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to food replenishment. It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are in a run. If a guinea pig is lost, it may wheek for assistance. listen
Bubbling or Purring - This sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself, when being petted or held. They may also make this sound when grooming, crawling around to investigate a new place, or when given food. listen‎
Rumbling - This sound is normally related to dominance within a group, though it can also come as a response to comfort or contentment. Whilst courting, a male usually purrs deeply, while swaying from side to side, nearly lifting the rear feet. listen
Chutting and Whining - These are sounds made in pursuit situations, by the pursuer and pursuee, respectively. listen
Chattering - This sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth together, and is generally a sign of warning. Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound.
Squealing or Shrieking - A high-pitched sound of discontent, in response to pain or danger. listen
Chirping - This less-common sound seems to be related to stress. listen

Breeding

The guinea pig's gestation period lasts from 59-72 days, with an average of 63-68 days. Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups, pregnant females may become large and eggplant-shaped (aubergine), although the change in size and shape varies among individual animals. Pups are already well developed at birth, including hair, teeth, claws and partial eyesight. The young are mobile from birth, and depending on the environment, will usually venture outdoors within a week. Pups begin eating solid food after a couple of days, though continue to suckle also. Litters generally yield 1-6 young, with an average of 3. In smaller litters, difficulties may occur during labour, due to over-sized pups. Large litters may result in higher incidences of stillbirth, but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development, lack of access to mother's milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns. Cohabitating females may assist in mothering duties if lactating.

Sexing of guinea pigs can be difficult, as males and females do not differ in external appearance apart from general size, and the position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes. Female genitals are distinguished by a Y-shaped configuration formed from a vaginal flap; while the male genitals may look similar with the penis and anus forming a like shape, the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair. The male's testes may also be visible externally from scrotal swelling.

Males reach sexual maturity at 3-5 weeks; females can be fertile as early as four weeks and can carry litters before they themselves are adults. Females that have never been bred commonly develop irreversible fusing of the pubic symphysis, a joint in the pelvis, after six months of age. If they become pregnant after this has happened, the birth canal will not widen sufficiently, this may lead to dystocia and death as they attempt to give birth. Females can become pregnant in 6-48 hours after giving birth, and it is not healthy for a female to be in virtually a constant state of pregnancy.

Toxemia of pregnancy is common and kills many pregnant females. Signs of toxemia include anorexia, lack of energy, excessive salivation, a ketone breath odor, and seizures in advanced cases. Pregnancy toxemia appears to be most common in hot climates. Other serious complications of pregnancy can include a prolapsed uterus, hypocalcemia, and mastitis.

Diet

Grass is the guinea pig's natural diet. Their molars are particularly suited for grinding plant matter, and grow continuously throughout the animal's life. Most grass-eating mammals are quite large and have a long digestive tract; while guinea pigs have much longer colons than most rodents, they must also supplement their diet by practicing coprophagy, the eating of their own feces. However, they do not consume their feces indiscriminately. They produce special soft pellets, called cecotropes, which recycle B vitamins, fiber, and bacteria required for proper digestion. The cecotropes (or caecal pellets) are eaten directly from the anus, unless the guinea pig is pregnant or obese. They share this behaviour with rabbits. In older boars (the condition is rarer in young ones), the muscles which allow the softer pellets to be expelled from the anus for consumption can become weak. This creates a condition known as anal impaction, which prevents the boar from redigesting cecotropes, though harder pellets may pass through the impacted mass. The condition may be temporarily alleviated by carefully expelling the impacted feces.

Guinea pigs benefit from feeding on fresh grass hay, such as timothy hay, in addition to food pellets which are often based from timothy. Alfalfa is also a popular food choice; most guinea pigs will eat large amounts of alfalfa when offered it, though there exists some controversy over the feeding of alfalfa to adult guinea pigs. Some pet owners and veterinary organizations have advised that, as a legume rather than a grass hay, alfalfa consumed in large amounts may lead to obesity, as well as bladder stones due to excess calcium, in any but pregnant and very young guinea pigs. However, published scientific sources mention alfalfa as a source for replenishment of protein, amino acids and fiber.

Like humans, but unlike most other mammals, guinea pigs cannot synthesize their own vitamin C and must obtain this vital nutrient from food. If guinea pigs do not ingest enough vitamin C, they can suffer from scurvy and ultimately die. Guinea pigs require about 10 mg of vitamin C daily (20 mg if pregnant), which can be obtained through fresh, raw fruits and vegetables (such as apple, broccoli, cabbage, carrot, celery, and spinach) or through dietary supplements. Healthy diets for guinea pigs require a complex balance of calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and hydrogen ions; adequate amounts of vitamins E, A, and D are also necessary. Imbalanced diets have been associated with muscular dystrophy, metastatic calcification, difficulties with pregnancy, vitamin deficiencies, and teeth problems. Guinea pigs tend to be fickle eaters when it comes to fresh fruits and vegetables, having learned early in life what is and is not appropriate to consume, and their habits are difficult to change after maturity. They do not respond well to sudden changes in diet; they may stop eating and starve rather than accepting new food types. A constant supply of hay or other food is generally recommended, as guinea pigs feed continuously and may develop habits such as chewing on their own hair if food is not present. Guinea pigs will also chew on cloth, paper, plastic, and rubber.

A number of plants are poisonous to guinea pigs, including bracken, bryony, buttercup, charlock, deadly nightshade, foxglove, hellebore, hemlock, lily of the valley, mayweed, monkshood, privet, ragwort, rhubarb, speedwell, toadflax and wild celery. Additionally, any plant which grows from a bulb (e.g., tulip and onion) is normally considered poisonous.

Health

A cavy suffering from Torticollis, or wry neck.

Common ailments in domestic guinea pigs include respiratory infections, diarrhea, scurvy (vitamin C deficiency, typically characterized by sluggishness), abscesses due to infection (often in the neck, due to hay embedded in the throat, or from external scratches), and infections by lice, mites or fungus.

Mange mites (Trixacarus caviae) are a common cause of hair loss, whose symptoms may also include excessive scratching, unusually aggressive behavior when touched (due to pain), and in some instances, seizures. Guinea pigs may also suffer from "running lice" (Gliricola porcelli), a small white insect which can be seen moving through the hair. Other causes of hair loss can be due to hormonal upsets caused by underlying medical conditions such as ovarian cysts.

While it is normal for guinea pigs to sneeze periodically, frequent sneezing be a symptom of pneumonia, especially in response to atmospheric changes. Pneumonia may also be accompanied by torticollis and can be fatal.

Because the guinea pig has a stout, compact body, the animal more easily tolerates excessive cold than excessive heat. Its normal body temperature is 101-104 °F (38.5-40 °C), and so its ideal ambient air temperature range is similar to the human's, about 65-75 °F (18-24 °C). Consistent ambient temperatures in excess of 90 °F (32 °C) have been linked to hyperthermia and death, especially among pregnant sows.

Guinea pigs are prey animals whose survival instinct is to mask pain and signs of illness, and many times health problems may not be apparent until a condition is severe or in its advanced stages. Treatment of disease is made more difficult by the extreme sensitivity guinea pigs have to most antibiotics, including penicillin, which kill off the intestinal flora and quickly bring on episodes of diarrhea and death.

Similar to the inherited genetic diseases of other breeds of animal (such as hip dysplasia in canines), a number of genetic abnormalities of guinea pigs have been reported. Most commonly, the roan coloration of Abyssinian guinea pigs is associated with congenital eye disorders and problems with the digestive system. Other genetic disorders include "waltzing disease" (deafness coupled with a tendency to run in circles), palsy, and tremor conditions.

Guinea pigs as pets

Guinea pigs are widely considered to be good pets. If handled correctly early in their life, they become very amenable to being picked up and carried, and seldom bite or scratch. They are timid explorers, and rarely attempt to escape from their cages, even when an opportunity presents itself. Guinea pigs who become familiar with their owner will whistle upon approach; they will also learn to whistle in response to the rustling of plastic bags or the opening of refrigerator doors, where their food is stored. Because of their widespread popularity in domestic life, and especially because of their popularity in households with children, guinea pigs have often, in recent years, been featured in popular culture.

Main article: Guinea pigs in popular culture

Domesticated guinea pigs come in many breeds which have been developed since their arrival in Europe and North America. These varieties vary widely in hair and color composition. The most common varieties found in pet stores are the English shorthair (also known as the American), which have a short, smooth coat, and the Abyssinian, whose coat is ruffled with cowlicks, or rosettes. Also popular among breeders are the Peruvian and the Sheltie (or Silkie), both straight longhair breeds, and the Texel, a curly longhair.

Main article: Domestic varieties of guinea pigs

Cavy Clubs and Associations dedicated to the showing and breeding of guinea pigs have been established worldwide. The American Cavy Breeders Association, an adjunct to the American Rabbit Breeders Association, is the governing body in the United States and Canada. The British Cavy Council governs cavy clubs in England. Similar organizations exist in Australia (Australian National Cavy Council) and New Zealand (New Zealand Cavy Club). Each club publishes its own Standard of Perfection and determines which breeds are eligible for showing.

Guinea pigs in scientific research

The use of guinea pigs in scientific experimentation dates back at least to the seventeenth century, when the Italian biologists Marcello Malpighi and Carlo Fracassati conducted vivisections of guinea pigs in their examinations of anatomic structures. In 1780, Antoine Lavoisier used a guinea pig in his experiments with the calorimeter, a device used to measure heat production. The heat from the guinea pig's respiration melted snow surrounding the calorimeter, showing that respiratory gas exchange is a combustion, similar to a candle burning. Guinea pigs played a major role in the establishment of germ theory in the late nineteenth century, through the experiments of Louis Pasteur, Émile Roux, and Robert Koch.

In English, the term guinea pig is commonly used as a metaphor for a subject of scientific experimentation. This dates back to the early twentieth century; the OED notes its first usage in this capacity in 1913. In 1933, Consumers' Research founders F. J. Schlink and Arthur Kallet wrote a book entitled 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs, extending the metaphor to consumer society. The book became a national bestseller in the United States, thus further popularizing the term, and spurred the growth of the consumer protection movement.

Guinea pigs were popular laboratory animals until the later twentieth century; about 2.5 million guinea pigs were used annually in the U.S. for research in the 1960s, but that total decreased to approximately 375,000 by the mid-1990s. As of 2007, they constitute approximately 2% of the current total of laboratory animals. In the past they were widely used to standardize vaccines and antiviral agents; they were also often employed in studies on the production of antibodies in response to extreme allergic reactions, or anaphylaxis. Less common uses included research in pharmacology and irradiation. Since the middle twentieth century, they have been replaced in laboratory contexts primarily by mice and rats. This is in part because research into the genetics of guinea pigs has lagged behind that of other rodents, although geneticists W. E. Castle and Sewall Wright made a number of contributions to this area of study, especially regarding coat color.

The guinea pig was most extensively implemented in research and diagnosis of infectious diseases. Common uses included identification of brucellosis, Chagas disease, cholera, diphtheria, foot-and-mouth disease, glanders, Q fever, Rocky Mountain spotted fever, and various strains of typhus. They are still frequently used to diagnose tuberculosis, since they are easily infected by human tuberculosis bacteria. Because guinea pigs are one of the few animals which, like humans, cannot synthesize vitamin C but must obtain it from their diet, they are ideal for researching scurvy. Complement, an important component for serology, was first isolated from the blood of the guinea pig. Guinea pigs have an unusual insulin mutation, and are a suitable species for the generation of anti-insulin antibodies. Guinea pigs have been identified as animal models for the study of juvenile diabetes and, because of the frequency of pregnancy toxemia, of preeclampsia in human females.

Guinea pig strains used in scientific research are primarily outbred strains. Aside from the common American or English stock, the two main outbred strains in laboratory use are the Hartley and Dunkin-Hartley; these English strains are albino, although pigmented strains are also available. Inbred strains are less common and are usually used for very specific research, such as immune system molecular biology. Of the inbred strains that have been created, the two that are still used with any frequency are, following Sewall Wright's designations, "Strain 2" and "Strain 13".

Guinea pigs as food

Guinea pigs (called cuy, cuye, curí) were originally domesticated for their meat in the Andes. Traditionally, the animal was reserved for ceremonial meals, but since the 1960s it has become more of a staple food. It continues to be a major part of the diet in Peru and Bolivia, particularly in the Andes Mountains highlands; it is also eaten in some areas of Ecuador (mainly in the Sierra) and Colombia. Due to the fact that guinea pigs require much less room than traditional livestock and reproduce extremely quickly, they are a more profitable source of food and income than many traditional stock animals, such as pigs and cows; moreover, they can be raised in an urban environment. Both rural and urban families raise guinea pigs for supplementary income, and the animals are commonly bought and sold at local markets and large-scale municipal fairs.

Guinea pig meat is high in protein and low in fat and cholesterol, and is described as being similar to rabbit and the dark meat of chicken. The animal may be served fried (chactado or frito), broiled (asado), or roasted (al horno), and in urban restaurants may also be served in a casserole or a fricassee. Ecuadorians commonly consume sopa or locro de cuy, a soup dish. Pachamanca or huatia, a process similar to barbecueing, is also popular, and is usually served with corn beer (chicha) in traditional settings.

Peruvians consume an estimated 65 million guinea pigs each year, and the animal is so entrenched in the culture that one famous painting of the Last Supper in the main cathedral in Cusco, Peru shows Christ and the twelve disciples dining on guinea pig. The animal remains an important aspect of certain religious events in both rural and urban areas of Peru. A religious celebration known as jaca tsariy ("collecting the cuys") is a major festival in many villages in the Antonio Raimondi province of eastern Peru, and is celebrated in smaller ceremonies in Lima. It is a syncretistic event, combining elements of Catholicism and pre-Columbian religious practices, and revolves around the celebration of local patron saints. The exact form that the jaca tsariy takes differs from town to town; in some localities, a sirvinti (servant) is appointed to go from door to door, collecting donations of guinea pigs, while in others, guinea pigs may be brought to a communal area to be released in a mock bullfight. Meals such as cuy chactado are always served as part of these festivities, and the killing and serving of the animal is framed by some communities as a symbolic satire of local politicians or important figures. In the Tungurahua and Cotopaxi provinces of central Ecuador, guinea pigs are employed in the celebrations surrounding the feast of Corpus Christi as part of the Ensayo, which is a community meal, and the Octava, where castillos (greased poles) are erected with prizes tied to the crossbars, from which several guinea pigs may be hung.

Andean immigrants in New York City raise and sell guinea pigs for meat, and some ethnic restaurants in major United States cities serve it as a delicacy. Peruvian research universities, especially La Molina National Agrarian University, began experimental programs in the 1960s with the intention of breeding larger-sized guinea pigs. Subsequent university efforts have sought to change breeding and husbandry procedures in South America, so as to make the raising of guinea pigs as livestock more economically sustainable. In the 1990s and 2000s, the university began exporting the larger breed guinea pigs to Europe, Japan, and the United States in the hope of increasing human consumption outside of South America. Efforts have also been made to introduce guinea pig husbandry in developing countries in West Africa.

References

General references

Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1.
Richardson, V.C.G. (2000). Diseases of Domestic Guinea Pigs (2nd edition ed.). Blackwell. ISBN 0-632-05209-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help)
Terril, Lizabeth A.; Clemons, Donna J. (1998). The Laboratory Guinea Pig. CRC Press. ISBN 0-8493-2564-1. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Vanderlip, Sharon (2003). The Guinea Pig Handbook. Barron's. ISBN 0-7641-2288-6.
Wagner, Joseph E.; Manning, Patrick J (1976). The Biology of the Guinea Pig. Academic Press. ISBN 0-12-730050-3.

Footnotes

Morales, Edmundo (1995). The Guinea Pig : Healing, Food, and Ritual in the Andes. University of Arizona Press. ISBN 0-8165-1558-1.
Morales, p. 87.
Morales, p. 3.
Morales, pp. 3-4.
Morales, p. 8.
Morales, pp. 10-16, 45-74.
Morales, p. 96.
Morales, p. 78.
Morales, p. 83.
Morales, pp. 75-78.
Morales, p. 3.
^ Weir, Barbara J. (1974), "Notes on the Origin of the Domestic Guinea-Pig", in Rowlands, I. W.; Weir, Barbara J. (eds.), The Biology of Hystricomorph Rodents, Academic Press, pp. pp. 437-446, ISBN 0-12-6133334-4 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Gmelig-Nijboer, C. A. (1977). Conrad Gessner's "Historia Animalum": An Inventory of Renaissance Zoology. Krips Repro B.V. pp. pp. 69-70. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
"Definition of cavy". Merriam-Webster Online. Retrieved 2007-03-12. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ "Diccionario de la Lengua Española" (in Spanish). Real Academia Española. Retrieved 2007-03-12.
^ Wagner, Joseph E.; Manning, Patrick J (1976). The Biology of the Guinea Pig. Academic Press. pp. p. 2. ISBN 0-12-730050-3. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
^ "Results for "Guinea pig"". Dictionary.com. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
Wagner, pp. 2-3.
Harvey, William (1653). Anatomical exercitations concerning the generation of living creatures to which are added particular discourses of births and of conceptions, &c. pp. p. 527. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
"Guinea Pig". Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2007. Retrieved 2007-03-12. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Vanderlip, Sharon (2003). The Guinea Pig Handbook. Barron's. pp. p. 13. ISBN 0-7641-2288-6. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
^ Richardson, V.C.G. (2000). Diseases of Domestic Guinea Pigs (2nd edition ed.). Blackwell. pp. pp. 132-133. ISBN 0-632-05209-0. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help)
Guinness Book of World Records. Bantam. 1997. ISBN 978-0553576849. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ Wagner, pp. 31-32.
^ Terril, Lizabeth A.; Clemons, Donna J. (1998). The Laboratory Guinea Pig. CRC Press. pp. p. 6. ISBN 0-8493-2564-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Vanderlip, pp. 33-34.
Richardson, pp. 63-64.
"Your Guinea Pigs' Home". Guinea Pig Cages. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
^ Terril, p. 34.
Vanderlip, pp. 44, 49.
^ National Resource Council (1996). Laboratory Animal Management: Rodents. National Academy Press. pp. pp. 72-73. ISBN 0-309-04936-9. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Wagner, p. 122.
Vanderlip, p. 19.
^ Behrend, Katrin (1998). Guinea Pigs: A Complete Pet Owner's Manual. Barron's. pp. pp. 22-23. ISBN 0-7641-0670-8. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Vanderlip, p. 20.
^ Terril, p. 41.
Wagner, pp. 126-128.
"Rabbits & Other Pets". Guinea Pig Cages. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
Charters, Jessie Blount Allen (July 1904). "The associative processes of the guinea pig: A study of the psychical development of an animal with a nervous system well medullated at birth". Journal of comparative neurology and psychology. XIV (4). University of Chicago: pp. 300-337. Retrieved 2006-12-27. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Wagner, p. 34.
"Guinea Pigs". Canadian Federation of Humane Societies. Retrieved 2007-03-21.
^ Harkness, John E.; Wagner, Joseph E. (1995). The Biology and Medicine of Rabbits and Rodents. Williams & Wilkins. pp. pp. 30-39. ISBN 0-683-03919-9. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
Vanderlip, p. 79.
Richardson, p. 72.
Wagner, pp. 32-33.
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Terril, p. 7.
Terril, pp. 7-8.
"Guinea Pig Sounds". Jackie's Guinea Piggies. Retrieved 2007-03-14. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help) Includes sound files.
Wagner, p. 88.
^ Percy, Dean H.; Barthold, Stephen W. (2001). Pathology of Laboratory Rodents and Rabbits (2nd edition ed.). Iowa State University Press. pp. pp. 209-247. ISBN 0-8138-2551-2. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help)
^ Richardson, pp. 14, 17.
Richardson, pp. 15-16.
Richardson, pp. 25-26.
Richardson, pp. 17-18.
Richardson, pp. 20-21.
Richardson, p. 20.
Richardson, pp. 25-29.
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"Health, Care, and Diet for a Guinea pig". Lake Howell Animal Clinic. Retrieved 2007-02-16.
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Institute for Laboratory Animal Resarch (1995). Nutrient Requirements of Laboratory Animals (4th edition ed.). National Academies Press. pp. p. 106. ISBN 0309051266. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help)
Richardson, p. 92.
Terril, p. 40.
Wagner, pp. 237-257.
Richardson, pp. 89-91.
Wagner, p. 236.
Richardson, pp. 88-89.
Richardson, p. 89.
^ Richardson, p. 93.
Richardson, ch. 1, 4, 5, 9.
Richardson, pp. 3-4.
Richardson, p. 55.
Richardson, pp. 45-48.
Terril, p. 19.
^ Wagner, p. 6.
Wagner, p. 229.
Richardson, pp. 105-106.
Richardson, p. 69.
^ Robinson, Roy (1974), "The Guinea Pig, Cavia Porcellus", in King, Robert C (ed.), Handbook of Genetics, vol. 4, Plenum, pp. pp. 275-307, ISBN 0-306-37614-8 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
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"Constitution". American Cavy Breeders Association. 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2007-03-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
"Official Website". Australian National Cavy Council. Retrieved 2007-04-03.
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Guerrini, Anita (2003). Experimenting with Humans and Animals. Johns Hopkins. pp. p. 42. ISBN 0-8018-7196-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Buchholz, Andrea C; Schoeller, Dale A. (2004). "Is a Calorie a Calorie?". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 79: pp. 899S–906S. Retrieved 2007-03-12. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Guerrini, pp. 98-104.
"Guinea-pig". Oxford English Dictionary online (subscription access required). Retrieved 2007-02-22.
Kallet, Arthur; Schlink, F. J. (1933). 100,000,000 Guinea Pigs:Dangers in Everyday Foods, Drugs, and Cosmetics. Vanguard Press. ISBN 978-0405080258.
McGovern, Charles (2004), "Consumption", in Whitfield, Stephen J. (ed.), A Companion to 20th-Century America, Blackwell, pp. p. 346, ISBN 0-631-21100-4 {{citation}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ Gad, Shayne C. (2007). Animal Models in Toxicology (2nd edition ed.). Taylor & Francis. pp. pp. 334-402. ISBN 0-8247-5407-7. {{cite book}}: |edition= has extra text (help); |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ Reid, Mary Elizabeth (1958). The Guinea Pig in Research. Human Factors Research Bureau. pp. pp. 62-70. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
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Chan, Shu Jin; et al. (1984). "Guinea Pig Preproinsulin Gene: An Evolutionary Compromise?". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 81: pp. 5046-5050. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
Bowsher, Ronald; et al. (1999). "Sensitive RIA for the Specific Determination of Insulin Lispro". Clinical Chemistry. 45: pp. 104-110. Retrieved 2007-03-15. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
^ Terril, pp. 2-3.
Morales, p. 47.
Morales, pp. xxvi, 4, 32.
^ Nuwanyakpa, M.; et al. (November 1997). "The current stage and future prospects of guinea pig production under smallholder conditions in West Africa". Livestock Research for Rural Development. 9 (5). Retrieved 2007-04-16. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Explicit use of et al. in: |first= (help)
Morales, pp. 32-43.
^ Vecchio, Rick (2004-10-19). "Peru Pushes Guinea Pigs as Food". CBS News. Retrieved 2007-03-12. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
Mitchell, Chip (2006-11-01). "Guinea Pig: It's What's for Dinner". Christian Science Monitor. Retrieved 2007-03-12. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
^ Morales, pp. 48-67.
^ Morales, pp. 101-112.
Morales, pp. 119-126.
Morales, pp. xvii, 133-134.
Morales, p. 16.
Morales, pp. 16-17.

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