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Revision as of 07:41, 20 December 2024 by Dr. Blofeld (talk | contribs)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) German-born explorer, physician, and politician (1867–1950) For other uses, see Paul Busch. In this Spanish name, the first or paternal surname is Busch and the second or maternal family name is Wiesener.

Pablo Busch
Headshot of Pablo BuschPortrait of Busch, c. 1930
BornPaul Busch
(1867-11-04)4 November 1867
Königsaue, Kingdom of Prussia, German Empire
Died3 May 1950(1950-05-03) (aged 82)
Portachuelo, Santa Cruz, Bolivia
Occupations
  • Explorer
  • physician
  • politician
Political partyRepublican
Spouse(s) Raquel Becerra Villavicencio ​ ​(m. 1893; sep. 1903)​
Enriqueta Antelo Hurtado ​ ​(m. 1912, separated)​
PartnerPetrona Baldivieso (c. 1908–1910)
Children9, including Germán
RelativesAlberto Natusch (grandson)

Pablo Busch Wiesener (born Paul Busch; 4 November 1867 – 3 May 1950) was a German-born explorer, physician, and politician. He served as subprefect of the Bolivian Province of Ñuflo de Chávez from 1924 to 1925 and was the estranged father of Germán Busch, the president of Bolivia, from 1937 to 1939.

Born in Königsaue and educated as a surgeon, Busch emigrated from Imperial Germany to eastern Bolivia [es] during the Amazon rubber boom. He was a shareholder and branch manager of the German-run trading company Zeller & Co., and made several medical expeditions along the Amazon and its tributaries. Busch led a nomadic lifestyle, with a presence in various communities in Beni and Santa Cruz. He started and abandoned multiple families and left many descendants throughout his lifetime.

During the Acre War, Busch lent logistical support to the Bolivian expeditionary force commanded by President José Manuel Pando. He gained personal recognition for his anti-blockade actions against Brazilian separatists. In politics, he was a member of the Republican Party and served as subprefect of the Ñuflo de Chávez Province. His harsh reign and ruthless imposition of order amid rampant banditry made him infamous across the department.

Busch reconnected with his son Germán in 1937 and was a trusted member of the president's administration. Historians partially attribute his influence to improved Bolivian–German relations during this time. Busch was caught in Germany during the outbreak of World War II and was interned after the conflict's conclusion. Bolivian diplomatic efforts secured his repatriation, and he died in Portachuelo.

Background and early life

Origins and family background

Paul Busch was born on 4 November 1867 in Königsaue, an agrarian settlement in the fertile Magdeburg Börde, near the eponymous city, in what is now the Bördeland Municipality of Saxony-Anhalt. His father, Ferdinand Busch, was Kapellmeister of St. John's [de], the Lutheran church in neighboring Eickendorf, and taught music and mathematics there and in the adjacent villages. His mother was Bertha Wiesener, and he was one of at least four siblings – although some sources cite as many as seven.

Of his three named brothers, only one, Georg, ever accompanied Busch abroad. "Jorge", as his name was Hispanicized, moved to Bolivia in 1906, where he captained a steamboat that traversed the Mamoré River in the employ of his brother's company. After four years, he returned to Germany to work in Neumünster. Another brother, Wilhelm, studied philology in Berlin and spent his life as a school professor. Little is known of "Juan" – a translation of either Johann, Johannes, or Hans – the supposed eldest brother. An accountant and merchant, oral history states that he founded a brewery.

Education and emigration

Busch completed his primary education in Eickendorf and attended secondary in neighboring Magdeburg. He graduated as a physician in Halle an der Saale and completed specialist medical training at several German institutes. He received a doctorate in surgery from a university in Berlin with a specialization in tropical diseases. Writer Carlos Montenegro notes that Busch was "little more than in his mid-adolescence" by the time he completed his university studies.

In 1890, at age 23, Busch immigrated to Bolivia to seek a career in education. The exact motives for his departure are unclear. Heinrich states that he was obligated into exile due to his republican and anti-monarchist views. Busch booked passage on the Hamburg America Line and made port in Buenos Aires. From there, he traveled by land through the northern Argentine trail, passing the cities of Rosario, Santa Fe, and Santiago del Estero toward the Bolivian frontier. En route, he was set upon by bandits but is said to have fought off his attackers. In a tale recounted by historian Mario Gabriel Hollweg, Busch purportedly fractured one bandit's skull with his cane and delivered the other to the police himself.

Presence in Bolivia

Business ventures and medical practice

Upon his arrival in Bolivia, Busch settled in Santa Cruz de la Sierra, a then-remote city isolated from the Andean west [es] but which benefitted from the flourishing rubber boom. There, Busch developed a close friendship with Wálter Villinger, a compatriot emigrant from Biberach an der Riß in Baden, who invited him to enter business with one Emilio Zeller. A prominent wholesaler who emigrated from Baden around the 1880s, Zeller had established himself in the years since as the largest industrialist in the Bolivian orient [es]. His joint trading company primarily dealt in the import-export trade but had a hand in several industries and operated a sizeable fleet of steamboats, which ferried passengers and cargo through the rivers of the Bolivian Amazon [es]. Villinger and Busch's involvement with Zeller gave rise to Zeller, Villinger & Co., with Busch as one of the firm's main shareholders.

Over the following years, Busch navigated the many tributaries of the Amazon basin, which connected isolated communities to the major eastern population centers. He attended – often pro bono – to the medical needs of local indigenous tribes. According to Hollweg, his penchant for accurate diagnoses, efficient treatments, and therapeutic accomplishments led superstitious minds to label him a "witch or curandero". Between 1893 and 1895, Busch settled in Trinidad, Beni, where he practiced medicine and managed the branch office of his partners' firm. Soon, however, swelling dissatisfaction with sedentary life spurred him to move on. For the next eight years, Busch lived as a semi-nomad. His recurrent medical expeditions and business ventures on behalf of Zeller led him to frequent several riverside communities in the departments of Beni and Santa Cruz, especially Baures, the site of his trade office, and San Javier, where he owned a residence.

Involvement in the Acre War

Further information: Acre War

Busch actively supported the Bolivian camp during the Acre conflict, between 1899 and 1903. The dispute centered around armed attempts by separatist Brazilian colonists to seize control of Bolivia's rubber-rich northern territories [es]. Bolivian forces drew sizable volunteer support from German expats, many of whom were employed by foreign and national corporations operating in the region. For his part, Busch put his steamboat at the service of the Bolivian expedition, supplying food and ammunition. His successful efforts in breaking through the separatist blockade, wherein he was nearly taken prisoner, earned him a personal letter of recognition from President José Manuel Pando, who commanded Bolivian troops in the field.

Later pursuits and enterprises

Photograph of Pablo Busch seated on a chair
Photo of Busch, c. 1937–1939

In 1904, Busch relocated to Baures in the Iténez Province, where he worked as branch manager of Zeller & Co., whose local office had become the town's largest trading house. Here, in 1909, he co-founded the second publishing company in Beni using a printing press imported from Germany. It published El Porvenir, the department's only newspaper outside of Trinidad.

During this time, Busch continued his routine river expeditions. In 1908, while navigating either the Mamoré or Iténez River, his vessel was ambushed by a Cayubaba tribe. The attack left Busch gravely wounded in the stomach, but he managed to make port in Puerto Ballivián [es] before being transferred to Trinidad. A local doctor removed an arrow shaft from his abdomen but could not extract the point lodged in his vertebra. In Baures on 23 July, Busch signed his final will and testament, the contents of which are a source of academic dispute.

Rather than approach nearby nations, Busch elected to seek treatment in his native Germany. He was transported by river from Trinidad to the transatlantic port of Belém do Pará and spent thirty days in agony aboard a German steamship bound for Hamburg. There, Busch underwent several successful operations, where it was shown that he had suffered seven gastrointestinal perforations. He spent the next few years in convalescence in Germany, where medical expenses forced him to sell off his stocks in Zeller & Co.

Busch reentered Beni by way of the Madeira and Mamoré rivers in either 1910 or 1911. He established a small enterprise selling imported hardware, but the venture fell through. He spent short stints in the hamlets of Yaguarú and El Puente in Guarayos Province and practiced medicine among the indigenous peoples of the surrounding Franciscan missions. From there, Busch moved to the Ñuflo de Chávez Province. He settled permanently in Concepción and returned to the employ of Zeller & Co. as an advisor and physician for the local branch. During this time, Busch also worked for the British firms Anglo-Bolivian Rubber Co. and Trading Co. Ltda.

Political activities

Beginning around 1918, it became common for prominent Germans in Santa Cruz to acquire Bolivian citizenship and participate in local government. For his part, Busch served as chief physician in the Public Health Service of Concepción. In 1920, a coup d'état in La Paz unseated the reigning Liberal government and installed the Republican Party in power. Busch joined the party, attracted by its populist platform. The new government faced constant opposition from the deposed Liberals and operated under a state of exception for several years. In the province of Ñuflo de Chávez, the political situation was much the same with the added factor of banditry, rampant in the region. To quell the unrest, the administration of Bautista Saavedra named Busch subprefect in June 1924. Previous authorities – including César Banzer, a personal friend of Busch and father of Hugo Banzer – had all struggled to pacify the province.

During his term, Busch became known as a "harsh authority" for the "severe methods" applied to bring order to the province. His efforts were consistently opposed by the Liberals, who "suffered first-hand the harshness of selective kindness". Busch led a relentless campaign to stamp out banditry and apprehend the outlaw Carmelo Hurtado. The infamous gunslinger had gained a reputation as a "romantic brigand" and became a popular folk hero among the people. In the conflict between Busch and Hurtado, "it is impossible to separate fiction from reality". One account tells of Busch confronting Hurtado in an armed skirmish. The bandit supposedly had the chance to kill Busch but chose to spare him because "he treated the poor for free". By the end of his term, the inhabitants of Concepción were on the verge of rebellion and his reputation for ruthlessness reached as far as Santa Cruz de la Sierra. Busch was finally dismissed on 6 October 1925 after sixteen months in office.

Relationships and children

Busch–Becerra line

During a stopover in Trinidad on an expedition in 1892, Busch met his first wife, Raquel Becerra Villavicencio. They maintained an intermittent romantic relationship between Busch's regular comings and goings and were finally wed in Trinidad on 12 June 1893.

Busch fathered five children during his marriage with Becerra. Due to the couple's itinerant lifestyle, only the eldest, Josefina (b. 1895), was born in Trinidad – although even her birthplace is stated as Santa Ana del Yacuma in Busch's much-questioned testament. The remaining four were all delivered along the routes of Busch's expeditions. Bertha Beni (b. 1897) was born in either Villa Bella or somewhere along the Beni River between there and Cachuela Esperanza. Elisa (b. 1900) and Pablo (b. 1901) were both born in San Javier. The birthplace of Busch's fifth and youngest son with Becerra, Germán (b. 1903), remains a subject of debate among scholars, who claim either El Carmen del Iténez [es] or San Javier as the site. Opinions often lie along regional lines depending on whether the advocate party is from Beni or Santa Cruz.

Josefina married Miguel Kiyoto, a Japanese immigrant and grocer, in 1932. Bertha married Samuel Ávila Alvarado in 1911, from which the prominent Ávila–Busch and Ávila–Chávez families of Trinidad descend. A cattle rancher [es], Ávila later served as a diplomat and senator. Elisa and the professor Alberto Natusch Velasco were wed in San Javier on 27 January 1900; through them, Busch is the maternal grandfather of Alberto Natusch Busch, the president of Bolivia in 1979. The junior Pablo became a physician like his father and inherited his tendency for promiscuity; he succumbed to addiction in his youth and died of an overdose in April 1932.

Busch lacked affection for anyone and in general was a bad father and a worse husband.

— Robert Brockmann

Mere months after the birth of Germán, Busch abandoned the family. According to his granddaughter, Gloria Busch Carmona, the family narrative is that Busch "saw a beautiful 14-year-old girl, fell madly in love, and left and their children to go with her". Busch remained estranged from his family; he and Becerra reunited only once in 1938, and he was absent in his children's lives well into adulthood.

Throughout his life, Germán sent sporadic letters to Busch, which went unanswered. He finally agreed to meet in 1937 after his son wrote one last message framed as an ultimatum. On 5 July, Germán departed for Concepción on a small Junkers W 34, but the plane did not arrive as intended. His apparent disappearance "plunged into the darkest despair and remorse". Busch later narrated that he had given himself one hour for Germán to arrive or else he would commit suicide: "I would shoot myself, because, fallen in the forest and devoured by vermin, would have died because of me, because of the longing to see his father". Within the hour, the plane had landed, and "father and son embraced each other in a long hug". It was "the most extraordinary episode of life", says historian Porfirio Díaz Machicao [es].

Busch at a family reunion in Cochabamba, 1938

Three days after his return from Concepción, Germán became president of Bolivia. From then on, Busch – who, by all accounts, had never before set foot in La Paz – became a common presence in the Palacio Quemado. Matilde Carmona, the first lady, resented Busch's "sudden paternal devotion because it seemed to her – with reason – self-serving". For historian Robert Brockmann, "the filial love of a father who disregards ... his newborn son and then clings to him when he becomes powerful is doubtful". Because of his outsized influence, "it is very probable" that the president's German-born father played a role in the Bolivian government's deepened ties with the Third Reich during this time. Busch met with multiple German officials on behalf of the administration; he discussed economic relations with Ernst Wendler and Joachim von Ribbentrop and attended an opera with Adolf Hitler, whom he gifted a vicuña wool quilt.

Busch–Baldivieso line

During his time in Baures, Busch met Petrona Baldivieso, the mestiza daughter of the local cacique. Busch and Baldivieso never married. They had one child, Carlos (b. 1908), born in Baures. Months later, Busch suffered the attack that forced him to seek treatment in Germany. Once he had healed, Busch returned to Bolivia but not to Baldivieso nor their son. Carlos later served with distinction in the Chaco War, where he rose to the rank of lieutenant. He was chief of police of Santa Cruz de la Sierra in 1938, during the administration of his half-brother, Germán. He was murdered along with his daughter in 1946.

Busch–Antelo line

In 1912, Busch married Enriqueta Antelo Hurtado, a woman from Santa Rosa de la Mina, whom he had met a few days prior. Their first son, Gustavo (b. 1915), died in infancy. Their second son, also named Gustavo (b. 1916), was born in El Puente. Gustavo studied business management and became a prominent broadcaster and radio personality; he owned the stations Libertad in La Paz and Centenario in Santa Cruz. Dora (b. 1928), the youngest of Busch's children, was born in Concepción. Her son, Herland Vaca Díez Busch, a prominent nephrologist, served as president of the Pro-Santa Cruz Civic Committee [es] from 2011 to 2013 and was head of the Santa Cruz Historical and Geographic Studies Society.

Later life and death

Headshot of Pablo Busch
Photo of Busch taken for his Brazilian transit visa, c. 1948

Busch departed for Germany to receive cataract surgery on 10 May 1939. He was in Genoa when he received the telegram reporting the sudden suicide in office of his son, Germán, on 23 August. Like many in the Busch family, he blamed the death on his in-laws, the Carmonas. Once in Germany, Busch was caught unawares by the outbreak of World War II on 1 September; he remained trapped in the Third Reich for the duration of the conflict. Despite his advanced age, he was pressed into service as a field surgeon operating out of Neumünster in Schleswig-Holstein. Upon the war's conclusion, Busch was interned in a British prisoner-of-war camp and was stripped of his diplomatic passport by José Saavedra, an erstwhile political rival of his late son. The ordeal left Busch undocumented alongside millions of other displaced Germans.

Sometime after the war, thanks to the diplomatic efforts of Aniceto Solares, the Bolivian foreign minister who lobbied British authorities, Busch and other nationals were released and repatriated. He reentered Bolivia in either 1946 or 1948. Prior to his return, Busch married his niece, some forty years his junior, who accompanied him back to Bolivia. Unable to acclimate to the tropical climate, she returned to Germany shortly thereafter. The government of Carlos Quintanilla had decreed Busch be granted a life pension of Bs. 2,000 monthly, which he never received. He spent his final years in Portachuelo, where he died on 3 May 1950. Hollweg states he died of pneumonia, but Brockmann affirms that his family does not know the cause of death. His remains are entombed in the Kiyoto–Busch family mausoleum in La Paz.

An eccentric figure, described as equal parts philanthropic and cruel, historical accounts of Busch's life are steeped in folklore and often contradictory. His legacy is closely intertwined with that of his son, Germán. For Brockmann, Busch was an "intrepid pioneer ... to whom Bolivia also owes the exploration of many rivers ... at a time when such an adventure required valor and temerity". His deeds "left legend in San Javier and Concepción, where with a tall hat, surgical case, and rifle, he waged war against the fearsome brigands of those regions", recounts Augusto Céspedes.

References

Notes

  1. Busch emigrated to Bolivia when it was common practice for foreign nationals to Hispanicize their names. During return trips to Europe, Busch would revert to his given name.
  2. Descendants of the Busch–Becerra line assert that Busch was one of seven siblings; those in the Busch–Antelo line claim only four. "Only the has concrete data", says Brockmann.
  3. Heinrich lists Busch attending universities in Magdeburg, Halle, and Leipzig. Brockmann states that he studied in Hamburg and Berlin. Hollweg claims he attended the "University of Berlin", without specifying which institution. All three authors agree that he concluded his studies in Berlin.
  4. Sources differ on the dates and birthplaces of all of Busch's children, but Brockmann cites these as the most "consistent or supported" figures. Hollweg lists Josefina as being born on 8 May 1894 in Santa Ana del Sécure; Bertha on 18 February 1896 in Villa Bella; Elisa on 23 January 1900 in San Javier; and Pablo on 27 November 1901 in San Javier.

Citations

  1. Brockmann 2017, pp. 22, 29.
  2. Hollweg 1995, p. 330; Brockmann 2017, pp. 19–20.
  3. Brockmann 2017, pp. 19–21.
  4. Brockmann 2017, p. 21, "Sólo la versión de que habrían sido cuatro hermanos tiene datos concretos".
  5. Hollweg 1995, p. 330; Brockmann 2017, pp. 21–22.
  6. ^ Brockmann 2017, p. 22.
  7. ^ Brockmann 2017, p. 21.
  8. ^ Heinrich 2005, p. 50.
  9. ^ Hollweg 1995, p. 330.
  10. Hollweg 1995, p. 330; Heinrich 2005, p. 50; Brockmann 2017, p. 21.
  11. ^ Hollweg 1995, p. 330; Heinrich 2005, p. 50.
  12. Montenegro 2015, p. 51, " recibió el título facultativo de médico y cirujano, casi no más que en plena adolescencia".
  13. Hollweg 1995, p. 330; Heinrich 2005, p. 50; Brockmann 2017, p. 22.
  14. Brockmann 2017, p. 23.
  15. Hollweg 1995, pp. 244, 330–331; Brockmann 2017, p. 23.
  16. Hollweg 1995, pp. 241–244; Heinrich 2005, p. 30.
  17. Hollweg 1995, pp. 243–251.
  18. Hollweg 1995, pp. 243, 331.
  19. Brockmann 2017, pp. 23, 25.
  20. ^ Brockmann 2017, p. 25.
  21. Brockmann 2017, p. 26.
  22. Hollweg 1995, pp. 156–157.
  23. Hollweg 1995, pp. 162–163, 331; Brockmann 2017, p. 26.
  24. Hollweg 1995, p. 209; Brockmann 2017, pp. 26–28.
  25. Hollweg 1995, p. 331; Brockmann 2017, pp. 28–29.
  26. Hollweg 1995, p. 332; Brockmann 2017, pp. 29, 35; Pinto 2023, p. 104.
  27. Hollweg 1995, pp. 331–332; Brockmann 2017, p. 29.
  28. ^ Hollweg 1995, p. 332; Brockmann 2017, p. 29.
  29. Brockmann 2017, p. 29.
  30. ^ Hollweg 1995, p. 332; Brockmann 2017, pp. 29–30.
  31. Hollweg 1995, p. 332.
  32. Hollweg 1995, pp. 332, 452; Hollweg 1997, p. 762; Brockmann 2017, p. 29.
  33. Hollweg 1997, p. 523.
  34. Hollweg 1997, p. 522; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  35. Hollweg 1995, pp. 333, 452; Hollweg 1997, p. 524; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  36. Hollweg 1997, p. 523; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  37. Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  38. Hollweg 1995, p. 452; Hollweg 1997, pp. 523–524; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  39. Crespo 1999, pp. 44, 54.
  40. Hollweg 1995, p. 452; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  41. Hollweg 1995, p. 452, " 'sus métodos muy severos empleados para poner orden en la provincia'"; Brockmann 2017, pp. 30–31, "En ese rol, el médico se reveló como una autoridad severa".
  42. Hollweg 1997, pp. 523, 762; Brockmann 2017, p. 31, "Los liberales ... sufrieron en carne propia las asperezas de la bondad selectiva del médico".
  43. Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Hollweg 1997, p. 762.
  44. Hollweg 1995, pp. 333, 452; Brockmann 2017, p. 30.
  45. Brockmann 2017, p. 30, "Allí se desarrolló una saga romántica de la cual hoy es imposible separar la ficción de la realidad".
  46. Hollweg 1995, p. 333, "Hurtado le tenía respeto y admiración, porque 'curaba gratis a los pobres'"; Brockmann 2017, p. 31.
  47. Brockmann 2017, p. 31.
  48. Hollweg 1995, p. 453.
  49. Hollweg 1995, p. 331; Brockmann 2017, p. 24.
  50. Lijerón 2011, p. 20; Brockmann 2017, p. 24.
  51. Lijerón 2011, p. 20; Brockmann 2017, p. 25.
  52. Hollweg 1995, p. 331.
  53. Lijerón 2011, p. 19; Pinto 2023, p. 101.
  54. Lijerón 2011, p. 20; Brockmann 2017, p. 39; Komori 2019, p. 8.
  55. Lijerón 2011, pp. 20, 24.
  56. Brockmann 2017, p. 40.
  57. Heinrich 2005, p. 78; Lijerón 2011, p. 20.
  58. Hollweg 1995, p. 78; Heinrich 2005, p. 78.
  59. Montenegro 2015, p. 61; Brockmann 2017, p. 40.
  60. Brockmann 2017, p. 22, " Busch carecía de cariños para nadie y en general fue un mal padre y peor esposo".
  61. Brockmann 2017, pp. 26, 38.
  62. Brockmann 2017, p. 38, "La versión preservada por la familia es que Pablo 'vio una hermosa niña de 14 años, se enamoró locamente y dejó a y a sus hijos para irse con ella'".
  63. Brockmann 2017, pp. 26, 38, 178, 347.
  64. Brockmann 2017, p. 178.
  65. Díaz 1957, pp. 52–53; Brockmann 2017, pp. 178–179.
  66. Brockmann 2017, pp. 178–179, "La tardanza hundió a Pablo Busch en la más negra desesperación y remordimiento.".
  67. Díaz 1957, p. 53, "Si Germán no llegaba dentro de , yo me pegaba un tiro, porque, caido en el bosque y devorado por las alimañas, habria muerto por culpa mia, por el anhelo de ver a su padre"; Brockmann 2017, p. 179.
  68. Brockmann 2017, p. 179, "Padre e hijo se confundieron en un largo abrazo".
  69. Díaz 1957, p. 53, "En esos días ... vivió el episodio más extraordinario de su vida".
  70. Díaz 1957, p. 53; Brockmann 2017, p. 180.
  71. Hollweg 1997, p. 650.
  72. Brockmann 2017, pp. 179, 209.
  73. Brockmann 2017, p. 209, "Matilde resintió esa súbita devoción paternal, porque le pareció, con razón, interesada".
  74. Brockmann 2017, p. 209, "Es dudoso el amor filial de un padre que se desentiende de ... su hijo recien nacido y se apera a el cuando este se torna poderoso".
  75. Brockmann 2017, p. 209.
  76. Brockmann 2017, pp. 272, 284–285.
  77. Brockmann 2017, p. 27.
  78. Hollweg 1995, p. 331; Hollweg 1997, p. 616; Brockmann 2017, p. 27.
  79. Brockmann 2017, pp. 28–29.
  80. Hollweg 1997, p. 616; Brockmann 2017, p. 40.
  81. Hollweg 1997, p. 617.
  82. Hollweg 1995, p. 332; Hollweg 1997, p. 763; Brockmann 2017, p. 29.
  83. Hollweg 1997, p. 763.
  84. AlMinuto 12 August 2011.
  85. El Deber 22 February 2024, p. 5.
  86. Hollweg 1995, p. 333.
  87. El Deber 15 July 2017.
  88. Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Brockmann 2017, p. 322.
  89. Brockmann 2017, p. 322.
  90. Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Brockmann 2017, pp. 247, 322–323.
  91. ^ Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Brockmann 2017, p. 323.
  92. Hollweg 1995, p. 333; Heinrich 2005, p. 50; Brockmann 2017, p. 323.
  93. Brockmann 2017, p. 323.
  94. Brockmann 2017, p. 309.
  95. Brockmann 2017, p. 20.
  96. Brockmann 2017, pp. 20–21, "Su propia vida es la de un intrépido pionero ... a quien Bolivia le debe además la exploración de no pocos ríos ... en una época en que tal aventura requería del valor y temeridad".
  97. Céspedes 1968, p. 173, "Su coraje dejó leyenda en San Javier y Concepción, donde con sombrero alto, maletín quirúgico y fusil anduvo haciendo guerra a los temibles bandoleros de aquellas regiones".

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