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Zhao Chongguo (Chinese: 趙充國; pinyin: Zhào Chōngguó, 137 – 52 BCE) was a prominent Chinese military commander and official during the Western Han dynasty. Born to a family of officials in Longxi Commandery, in what is now eastern Gansu, Zhao likely began military service in a local cavalry unit. Around 100, he joined the Feathered Forest, a recently created elite cavalry unit recruited from the northwestern commanderies. He joined Li Guangli's campaign against the Xiongnu confederation the following year as an acting major, where he was greatly injured in combat. Emperor Wu, impressed by his courage, promoted him to the post of Gentleman of the Household. He likely served as chief of staff to Grand General Huo Guang, and commanded troops against a rebellion of the Di people in 80. That year, Zhao was additionally appointed to manage the imperial parks, which incidentally gave him control over the minting of cash coinage.

In 74, he collaborated with Huo to depose the newly-enthroned emperor Liu He in favor of Emperor Xuan. For this, he was appointed a title of nobility and was promoted to General of the Rear (水衡都尉; Hòu jiāngjūn). After participating in raids and conflicts against the Xionggnu, he volunteered to lead a campaign against the Qiang in 62 despite his advanced age. The Qiang had recently risen up in revolt in what is now Qinghai and defeated a Han column. Joined by his son Zhao Ang, he was succesful in pushing deep into Qiang territory, and exploited tribal divisions by granting amnesty to the Qiang who defected to the Han forces. Zhao rejected proposals by Emperor Xuan and his fellow generals to continue offensive operations, believing that a protracted occupation would subdue the Qiang through attrition. He was able to win over the imperial court through his advocacy of tuntian; 'farming garrisons', although the emperor simotaneously approved offensive operations by the other generals. Zhao's garrison technique proved succesful, and granted him great acclaim and influence on later tacticians. He retired in 60 after the scandal and suicide of his son, and was posthumously interred at the Duling Mausoleum alongside Emperor Xuan.

Early life and career

In 137 BCE, Zhao Chongguo was born in the Shanggui prefecture of the Longxi Commandery, located along the western periphery of the Han Empire in what is now Tianshui in eastern Gansu. A stele erected for a member of his family in 180 CE claims the family originated as a branch of the ruling family of Zhao State during the Warring States period. His great-grandfather, Zhao Zhongkuang, was Privy Treasurer (少府; Shǎofǔ) under Emperor Wen and Emperor Jing. Zhongkuang's son, Zhao Sheng, served as Advisory Counselor (諫議大夫; Jiànyìdàfū). Sheng's son Zhao Yu, Zhao Chongguo's father, served as Palace Attendant, but had committed some grave offense and was exiled to Shanggui.

Little is known about Zhao's early life or military experience prior to 104. Posthumous histories report that he was ambitious as a youth and sought to become a general. At a young age, he studied military science and the Four Barbarians. The "Six Commanderies" had a regional tradition of cavalry service within the Han military. Zhao likely began service as a cavalryman in a local defense unit, and became known as a liujun liangjiazi (六郡良家子; 'Son of the Good Families of the Six Commanderies'), a group from which many noted Han generals had their origins. He was granted the courtesy name Wengsun (翁孫). At some point, Zhao moved to Lingju County in the Jincheng Commandery, in what is now Yongdeng County, Gansu. Zhao's move was likely connected to his military service, as the administration of the region had been recently established during the Han campaigns against the Qiang.

Military service

In 104, an elite cavalry unit titled the Feathered Forest (羽林; yǔlín) was created in the capital of Chang'an, one of five units placed under the administration of the Minister of the Imperial Household and tasked with protecting the Emperor. The members of the unit, dubbed the "Gentlemen of the Feathered Forest" (羽林郎; yǔlínláng), were mainly recruited from the northwest, with a particular emphasis on the descendants of men who died in military service. The soldiers of the Feathered Forest, like those in other Imperial Household units, were often appointed to higher military and civil positions following a period of service. Zhao joined the unit around 100. In 99, he joined a force of 30,000 cavalry in Li Guangli's campaign against the Xiongnu, receiving the rank of acting major. The Han army was forced to retreat and suffered heavy casualties. It eventually became trapped by the encroaching Xiongnu forces after several days of combat. Zhao led a group of around 100 men to breech the Xiongnu lines and allow for the rest of the Han army to retreat, suffering twenty sword cuts in the process. After General Li commended Zhao's service, Emperor Wu invited Zhao to a private meeting in order to see his battle wounds; he was so impressed that he promoted Wu to the rank of Gentleman of the Household (中郎; zhōngláng) in recognition of his bravery.

Zhao was soon promoted again, becoming Chief of Staff for the General of Chariots and Cavalry (車騎 將軍; jūjì jiāngjūn). Zhao likely served as chief of staff to Grand General Huo Guang, and progressed rapidly during Huo's succeeding dictatorship. In 80, Zhao led an army against the Di people, who had rebelled in the Wudu Commandery. During this campaign, he held the title of Army Protector Chief Commandant (護軍都尉; Hùjūn dūwèi), probably an advisory position to the Grand General. He was then sent to command the garrisons of Shanggu Commandery in modern-day Inner Mongolia, possibly only as a brief inspection.

Later in 80, Zhao was appointed as the Chief Commandant of Waters and Parks (水衡都尉; Shuǐhéng dūwèi), a position he would ultimately hold until 60 BCE. As Chief Commandant, he managed the Shanglin Park to the north of the capital. This position also allowed him to administrate the minting of cash coinage, as the central mint was located inside the park. By 74, Zhao was joined in this position by the General of the Van, Han Zeng.

In 74, Zhao collaborated with Huo to depose the newly-enthroned emperor Liu He in favor of Emperor Xuan, signing the deed of indictment against the emperor alongside the Imperial Counselor and Han Zeng. In reward for this service, Zhao was awarded the hereditary title of Marquis of Yingping. Around this time, he was promoted to General of the Rear (水衡都尉; Hòu jiāngjūn), alongside his concurrent civil post as Chief Commandant. From 72 to 71, Zhao was one of five Han generals who participated in a large cavalry campaign against the Xiongnu at the request of the Wusun. During the campaign, he was titled the General of Pulei (水衡都尉; Hòu jiāngjūn). Following a massive raid into Shanxi in 70, a defected Xiongnu commander advised the Han army to place Zhao, who had reportedly become infamous to the Xiongnu, in command of the northern frontier commanderies. The Xiongnu forces retreated the following year. Huo Guang died two years later, and the Huo family was overthrown in favor of direct rule by Emperor Xuan. Zhao remained in the good graces of the administration.

Campaign against the Qiang

Preventing contact and alliances between the Qiang people and the Xiongnu had been a geopolitical goal of the Han since the reign of Emperor Wu, and was a major motivator for the conquest of the Hexi corridor. During the mid-60s, a chieftain of the Qiang Xianlian tribe requested permission to pasture their herds in the Huangshui valley, where they had previously been expelled. Zhao was angered after this proposal was relayed positively to the Han court by the emissary Yiqu Anguo, accusing the Qiang of merely seeking contact with the Xiongnu and recommending a preemptive attack. The Han government's official response to the proposal is unknown, but the local garrison was unable to prevent the Qiang resettlement in the region.

In 63, the chief of the Xianlian joined a large group of Qiang chieftains in suspending local feuds and forming an alliance. Zhao counseled Emperor Xuan on the matter, describing a unified Qiang as a particular threat to the Han, and predicting that the Xiongnu would imminently seek to ally with them. In 62, the Han became aware that the Qiang lord Langhe had sent envoys to the Xiongnu, seeking to join in an alliance to attack Dunhuang and Shanshan. Sensing an imminent attack, Zhao advocated for the officer Xin Wuxian, the Grand Administrator of Jiuquan, to be sent into Qiang territory as part of a punitive expedition. Instead, the offices of the Chancellor and Imperial Secretary sent Yiqu Anguo into Qiang territory, ostensibly for diplomatic purposes. His brutal campaign caused widespread resentment, and more Qiang tribes rose up in revolt. Yiqu Anguo was forced to retreat back into Han territory.

Leading the campaign

Emperor Xuan sent Imperial Secretary Bing Ji to consult Zhao on the leadership of an ensuing relief expedition. Although now in his seventies, Zhao volunteered to lead the expedition himself to the emperor's approval. Zhao joined a group of around 10,000 cavalry troops mobilized at the Jincheng Commandery. The army departed west along the Yellow River, seeking to make a crossing to the northern bank east of the confluence with the Huangshui River. During the night, Zhao sent three regiments to cross and construct field fortifications along the northern bank in order to protect the rest of the army. However, this vanguard was attacked by a small group of Qiang horsemen shortly after. Suspecting a possible ambush, he withdrew his forces and sent a party to scout a highly defensible location along the river known as the Siwang Narrows. When no Qiang forces were found at the narrows, the army traveled along the Huangshui through Luodu (now Ledu) and rested for several days at the fort of Longzhi, southeast of modern Xining.

Shortly before Zhao's arrival at Longzhi, a Qiang emissary named Diaoku from the Kai tribe was detained at the fort. Zhao declared him innocent and sent him as a messenger to the Qiang, promising amnesty and large monetary rewards for Qiang who decapitated those in the rebellion. They would also be rewarded with ownership of the wives, children, and property of the decapitated. As Zhao advanced upriver, his son Zhao Ang led a hastily-assembled relief column comprised of two regiments of standing forces from Chang'an. Bogged down by Qiang forces at Lianju and cut off from its supply lines, it was eventually reinforced by a group of around 5,000 cavalry. The Grand Administrator of Jincheng, commanding around 10,000 cavalry, was also sent to reinforce Zhao Ang. However, many of these troops had likely joined Zhao Chongguo's forces.

Xin Wuxian wrote to Zhao Chongguo and advocated a strike on the Han and Kai tribes near Qinghai Lake, suggesting that the enslavement of their families and the seizure of their livestock would greatly weaken the Qiang, and allow for their destruction by the main army in the winter. Zhao stated that the plan would leave the northern frontier undefended against a potential Xiongnu attack, and that the amount of supplies needed for such an expedition would unhelpfully encumber the horses. Although the Han and Kai tribes were seen as most responsible for the rebellion, he believed that subduing and gaining the allegiance of the nearby Xianlian would secure the frontier against the other Qiang tribes.

After deliberations, the Three Lords and Nine Ministers advised the emperor against Zhao's proposal. Yiqu Anguo was dispatched to deliver the emperor's response to Zhao, reprimanding him for not seeking to prevent Han and Kai raids into Gansu. The emperor additionally gave Xin Wuxian the title of "General Who Smashes the Qiang" (Chinese: 破羌將軍; pinyin: Pò-qiāng jiāngjūn). Zhao rebuked this and responded with a further outline of his plan in July or August 62, stating that he wished to attack only the Xianlian, and only attack the Han and Kai if they continued their hostilities afterwards. He noted that a preemptive attack against the Han and Kai would guarantee their alliance with the Xianlian, while they could be otherwise convinced to turn against them. After a very brief period of deliberation, the emperor conceded and approved Zhao's plan.

Zhao advanced further into Qiang territory. The Xianlian troops scattered at their approach, leaving behind their livestock, carts, and wagons. The Chinese army proceeded into the territories of the Han sub-tribe, likely to the northeast of Qinghai Lake, but refrained from looting. This endeared the Han to the army. Around September 62, the Qiang chieftain Miwang sent an envoy to Zhao, asking for his people to be allowed to return to their original territory. Although most of his officers were opposed to pardoning Miwang for allying with the Xianlian, Zhao overruled them and granted clemency to him and the Han tribe.

Agricultural garrisons

Zhao fell ill around two months later, but was urged to stay on the offense. Emperor Xuan ordered Xin Wuxian to transfer his garrison troops to Zhao's army and ordered Zhao to attack around January 61. If Zhao's illness worsened, he ordered Xin and the General of Strong Crossbows, Xu Yanshou, to launch the attack in his stead. This frustrated Zhao, who did not seek to take immediate offensive operations, and so had no use for additional men under his command; by the end of the year, he commanded an army of around 60,000 troops, requiring large amounts of grain and salt for rations. Zhao Ang sent an aide to his father, begging him to follow the emperor's orders despite his illness. Zhao defended himself to his son, stating that he intended to continue his plans, stating that "our brilliant ruler may judge if my words are loyal".

Zhao outlined a strategy for a longer-term occupation of the Qiang territories using tuntian; 'farming garrisons'. He sought permission to disband most of his forces, leaving only 10,281 troops (comprising the troops from the commanderies of Huaiyang and Runan as well as former convicts from the capital region) behind. These would refrain from offensive operations to construct administrative outposts, irrigation ditches, and reservoirs in order to build up the agricultural capacity along the Huangshui. He predicted that this could extend administration as far as Qinghai Lake. A group of 1,000 cavalrymen would be reserved to live off the land during the spring and summer in order to protect the army's farms.

Emperor Xuan was befuddled by Zhao's proposal, asking in reply: "What sort of general would plan this? When will the enemy be exterminated? When will our troops gain a decision? If you can figure out why this plan is to our advantage, memorialize again!" Zhao responded with another memorial, listing twelve advantages of his plan. He described the plan as denying the Qiang their most fertile territories and instead relegating them to the arid highlands, causing infighting and starvation among the Qiang armies. Additionally, the plan would allow for the construction of infrastructure to keep troops constantly supplied, as opposed to carrying their own supplies through the mountains, where they may be ambushed or cut off from resupply.

Zhao dismissed imperial concerns that the reduction in numbers would put the troops at risk of a large-scale Qiang assault by emphasizing that waiting out the enemy would further reduce their combat capacity due to their lack of supplies. The emperor submitted Zhao's proposal to various high officials for review, including the Three Dukes and Nine Ministers. Eighteen of the high officials supported Zhao's third memorial. When the emperor ordered them to look over the memorials again, Chancellor Wei Xiang urged him to defer to Zhao's expertise; the emperor sent Zhao affirmation for his plan, but simultaneously approved plans for an offensive with troops led by Xin Wuxian, Xu Yanshou, and Zhao Ang. Their three armies returned later with around 5,000 captives and 3,000 severed heads total; during this same period, 5,000 Qiang had surrendered to Zhao Chongguo's forces. Due to the heavy cost of the offensive operations in return for limited additional benefit, the emperor demobilized the other armies while maintaining Zhao's garrison.

Later life

The Qiang continued to surrender to Zhao's forces. Many of the Qiang troops who had not starved or died in battle had fled elsewhere. Around July 60, Zhao was granted approval to disband his garrison. He returned to the capital, while Xin Wuxian was demoted from generalship and sent back to govern Jiuquan. Zhao became the Commandant of the Guards, one of the Nine Ministers, where he managed the conscript troops which guarded the gates of the imperial palace in Chang'an. That year, Emperor Xuan recreated the post of Colonel Protector of the Qiang, which had become vacant at some point following its creation by Emperor Wu. Xin Tang, the younger brother of Xin Wuxian was appointed to the post; Zhao, although ill and unable to attend the previous meetings on the position, penned a memorial stating that Xin Tang was unsuitable for the position due to his alcoholism. Following Zhao's recommendation, the emperor revoked Xin Tang's appointment in lieu of his elder brother Xin Linzhong.

During a dinner party, Zhao Ang described to a private meeting he had once had with Emperor Wu to Xin Wuxian. Xin, seeking vengence for his demotion back to Grand Administrator of Jiuquan, reported this breech of imperial confidence, and had Zhao Ang placed under probationary measures. Later in 60, Zhao Ang violated these measures by arriving at his father's headquarters and creating a great deal of disorder among his troops; Zhao Ang was demoted to petty officialdom and later committed suicide. Zhao Chongguo held a funeral for his son, for which he was granted a four-horse coach and 13.32 kilograms (29.4 lb) of gold.

Death and legacy

In 60, Zhao retired to his home in the northwestern commanderies, and was rewarded with great wealth. He continued to participate in state discussions on foreign policy. He died in 52, and was honored by a portrait at the imperial palace. Emperor Cheng (r. 33 – 7 BCE) had Zhao Chongguo's remains reinterred at the Duling Mausoleum in Chang'an, the tomb of Emperor Xuan. Additionally, the emperor commissioned a hymn in his honor. Zhao's marquisate of Yingping passed to Zhao Ang's son Qin. After Zhao Qin's death, it passed to his wife Princess Jingwu's adopted son, Zhao Cen; this was later removed in 10 BCE after a dispute between Jingwu and Cen's biological father. Under the reign of Emperor Ping (r. 1 – 6 CE), the marquisate was recreated and granted to Zhao Chongguo's great-grandson, Zhao Ji. The title was abolished by the fall of Wang Mang's regime in 23 CE.

Although tuntian had been coined prior to Zhao's campaign, his outline of the strategy to Emperor Xuan became a foundational strategic text for its implementation. The strategy would be implemented by the Northern Wei, Sui, and Tang as the Fubing system, and by the Ming dynasty through the Weisuo system.

Notes

1. Comprising Longxi, Tianshui, Anding, Beidi, Shang, and Xihe commanderies
2. Likely referring to a location near Barkol Lake as a military objective of the campaign.
3. The Siwang Narrows are without a clear identification, but are downstream from Ledu.
4. Chinese: 罕; pinyin: Hǎn, not to be confused with the similarly named dynasty or ethnic group
5. The wushen day of the sixth month of the wuwu year
6. The location of the Han tribe's territories is unknown, and they may have been to the north or south of the Huangshi.
7. The twelfth month of the wuwu year
8. Only two officials held the ducal positions at the time. Beyond these two dukes and the nine ministers, it is unknown which other officials supported or potentially opposed Zhao's plan.
9. This marquis is named Zhao Ji in a Later Han stele.

References

1. ^ Knechtges & Chang 2014, p. 2206.
2. Dreyer 2008, pp. 670.
3. Vankeerberghen 2021, pp. 43–44.
4. Tse 2018, p. 67.
5. ^ Loewe 2000, p. 701.
6. ^ Dreyer 2008, pp. 671–672.
7. Tse 2018, p. 61.
8. Tse 2018, pp. 35, 67–68.
9. Vankeerberghen 2021, p. 50.
10. Tse 2018, pp. 81–82.
11. Dreyer 2008, pp. 673–674.
12. ^ Dreyer 2008, pp. 673–675.
13. Loewe 2004, pp. 195–196.
14. Loewe 2004, p. 197.
15. Loewe 2004, p. 188.
16. Loewe 2004, pp. 188–189, 196.
17. Hulsewé 1979, p. 79.
18. Loewe 2004, pp. 188–189.
19. Dreyer 2008, pp. 675–678.
20. Dreyer 2008, pp. 675–679, 685, 693.
21. ^ Dreyer 2008, pp. 679–680.
22. Dreyer 2008, pp. 682, 688.
23. Dreyer 2008, pp. 680–681, 688.
24. Dreyer 2008, p. 685.
25. Dreyer 2008, pp. 681–684.
26. Dreyer 2008, p. 690.
27. Dreyer 2008, pp. 685–691.
28. ^ Dreyer 2008, p. 691.
29. Dreyer 2008, pp. 691–695.
30. ^ Loewe 2000, pp. 702–703.
31. Dreyer 2008, pp. 694–696.
32. Dreyer 2008, p. 696.
33. Dreyer 2008, pp. 696–699.
34. Dreyer 2008, pp. 702–703.
35. Dreyer 2008, pp. 699–703.
36. Dreyer 2008, pp. 703–704.
37. ^ Dreyer 2008, pp. 704–707.
38. ^ Dreyer 2008, pp. 707–708.
39. Loewe 2000, p. 703.
40. Vankeerberghen 2021, p. 63.
41. Loewe 2000, p. 74.
42. Dreyer 2008, p. 710.

Bibliography

• Dreyer, Edward L. (July 2008). de Crespigny, Rafe (ed.). "Zhao Chongguo: A Professional Soldier of China's Former Han Dynasty". The Journal of Military History. 72 (3): 665–725. doi:10.1353/jmh.0.0028.
• Hulsewé, A. F. P. (1979). China in Central Asia: The Early Stage, 125 B.C.–A.D. 23. Leiden: Brill.
• Knechtges, David R.; Chang, Taiping, eds. (2014). Ancient and Early Medieval Chinese Literature: A Reference Guide, Parts 3-4. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004271852. ISBN 9789004267886.
• Loewe, Michael (2004). The Men Who Governed Han China: Companion to a Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789047413363. ISBN 9789047413363.
• Loewe, Michael (2000). A Biographical Dictionary of the Qin, Former Han and Xin Periods. Leiden: Brill. doi:10.1163/9789004490253. ISBN 9789004103641.
• Tse, Wicky W. K. (2018). The Collapse of China's Later Han Dynasty, 25-220 CE: The Northwest Borderlands and the Edge of Empire. London: Routledge. ISBN 9781315532318.]
• Vankeerberghen, Griet (2021). "Of Gold and Purple: Nobles in Western Han China and Republican Rome". In Beck, Hans; Vankeerberghen, Griet (eds.). Rulers and Ruled in Ancient Greece, Rome, and China. Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/9781108641166. ISBN 9781108641166.