Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Android Mouse (talk | contribs) at 05:22, 25 June 2007 (Reverted 1 edit by 68.101.199.251 identified as vandalism to last revision by Yrralaidepikiw.). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Autism spectrum
Specialty	Psychology

Autism is classified by the World Health Organization and American Psychological Association as a developmental disability that results from a disorder of the human central nervous system. It is diagnosed using specific criteria for impairments to social interaction, communication, interests, imagination and activities. The causes, symptoms, etiology, and appropriate treatment of autism remain controversial.

Autism manifests itself "before the age of three years" according to the World Health Organization's International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10). Children with autism are marked by delays in their "social interaction, language as used in social communication, or symbolic or imaginative play" (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders).

Autism, and the other four pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), are all considered to be neurodevelopmental disorders. They are diagnosed on the basis of a triad, or group of three behavioral impairments or dysfunctions: impaired social interaction, impaired communication, and restricted and repetitive interests and activities. These three basic characteristics reflect Dr. Leo Kanner's first reports of autism emphasizing "autistic aloneness" and "insistence on sameness."

There are no outward physical characteristics associated with autism. Diagnosis of the disorder is typically based on a complete patient history and physical and neurological evaluation.

The incidence of diagnosed autism has increased since the 1990s. Reasons offered for this phenomenon include better diagnosis, wider public awareness of the condition, regional variations in diagnostic criteria, or simply an increase in the occurrence of autism spectrum disorders (ASD). In 2005, the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) stated the "best conservative estimate" as 1 in 1000. In 2007, NIMH estimated that the incidence was 2-6 in every 1000.

There are numerous theories as to the specific causes of autism (see section on "Causes" below). Autism has been attributed to genetics, abnormal blood vessel function, oxidative stress, and environmental factors such as vaccinations or pollution.

Some individuals with autism are opposed to attempts to find a cure autism. These people see autism as part of who they are, and in some cases they perceive treatments and attempts of a cure to be unethical.

History

The word "autism" was first used in the English language by Swiss psychiatrist Eugene Bleuler in a 1911 issue of the American Journal of Insanity. It comes from the Greek word for "self," αυτος (autos), and was originally used to talk about people who seemed to have very little social communication apart from with themselves. Autism was actually confused with schizophrenia during the early stages of observation. Bleuler used the term to describe the schizophrenics' seeming difficulty in connecting with other people.

However, the classification of autism as a separate disorder or disease did not occur until 1943 when psychiatrist Dr. Leo Kanner of the Johns Hopkins Hospital in Baltimore reported on 11 child patients with striking behavioral similarities and introduced the label "early infantile autism." He suggested the term "autism" to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people. Kanner's first paper on the subject was published in a now defunct journal called The Nervous Child, and almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders.

At the same time, an Austrian scientist named Dr. Hans Asperger made similar observations, although his name has since become attached to a different higher-functioning form of autism known as Asperger syndrome. Widespread recognition of Asperger's work was delayed by World War II in Germany, and by his seminal paper not being translated into English for almost 50 years. The majority of his work was not widely read until 1997.

Autism and Asperger syndrome are today listed in the DSM-IV-TR as two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which also include Childhood disintegrative disorder, Rett syndrome and Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (or atypical autism). Health care providers also refer to autism spectrum disorders (ASD) which includes only three of those listed in PDD: Autistic disorder, Asperger syndrome, Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified. All of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of deficiencies in communication skills and social interactions, along with restricted, repetitive, and stereotyped patterns of behavior.

Characteristics

Autism, unlike disorders such as Down syndrome and Fragile X syndrome, is not associated with any unusual physical characteristics. Some studies indicate that autistic children tend to have larger head circumferences than those not affected by autism, but the significance of this is unclear.

Individuals diagnosed with autism can vary greatly in skills and behaviors, but their response to sensory input shows marked differences in a number of ways from that of other people. Certain stimulations, such as sounds, lights, and touch, will often affect someone with autism differently than someone without, and the degree to which the sensory system is affected can vary greatly from one individual to another.

Key behaviors

Autistic children may display unusual behaviors or fail to display expected behaviors. Normal behaviors may develop at the appropriate age and then disappear or may be delayed and develop after normal occurrence, if at all. In assessing developmental delays, different physicians may not always arrive at the same conclusions. This is often due to the disputed criteria for autism. Practitioners and researchers in pediatrics, child psychology, behavior analysis, and child development continue to research possible early indicators of autism.

The diagnosis of autism must meet specific criteria, but there are also many characteristics that are idiosyncratic. Autism is not a "one size fits all" label. The spectrum disorder encompasses a wide range of behaviors and symptoms.

Some behaviors cited by the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (listed below) may indicate a normal delay in one or more areas of development, while others are more typical of Autistic Spectrum Disorders (ASD).

Behaviors associated with autistic children

Autistic children are often slow to develop language skills. Some children with autism meet early developmental milestones, such as babbling or even speaking a few words, and seem to be developing typically until they suffer a regression and lose these skills. Children with autism often appear to be ignoring the speech of others. They may fail to react even when they hear their own names spoken.

Certain non-verbal forms of communication can also be difficult for autistic children to learn. They tend to avoid eye contact, and do not smile when smiled at by others. The "pointing" gesture is often misunderstood by children with autism. They tend to stare at the pointing hand rather than looking to see what it is pointing at.

Children with autism tend to avoid playing with other children. They seem to be "in their own world", staring blankly into space and showing no interest in social interaction. Rather than playing make-believe games with their toys, many autistic children prefer to arrange these objects into a particular order or pattern.

Repetitive behavior patterns and strict adherence to a particular routine are other signs of autism in children. A child might spin around in a circle again and again, or insist upon putting on his or her clothes in the exact same order each morning (e.g. first the right sock, then the left sock). Children with autism may throw intense, violent tantrums when forced to deal with an unfamiliar situation or deviate from their prefered routine.

While some of these behaviors might be seen in a person with autism, others may be absent.

Social development

This section called "Social development" needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section called "Social development". Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Autism spectrum" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Typically developing infants respond socially to other people and will look at faces or orient towards voices. In contrast, most autistic children show little interest in faces and must learn to engage in social interaction. Even in the first few months of life, many autistic children seem indifferent to others, and do not engage in eye contact and interaction with others. Some infants with autism may appear very calm and may cry less often or fail to seek parental attention. Other children may develop normally for the first two years of life, but then regress unexpectedly and fail to meet typical developmental milestones.

Autistic children often seem to prefer being alone. They may passively accept hugs and cuddling without reciprocating, or resist attention altogether. They seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents' displays of anger or affection in a typical way. Research has suggested that many autistic children do form emotional bonds with their parents. However, this bond may be difficult for others to recognize because an autistic child's particular ways of expressing this attachment may differ from that of other children. Though social deficits are common, autistic children may vary significantly in their levels of social attachment and interaction.

According to Simon Baron-Cohen et al (1985), autistic children appear to lack "theory of mind". Theory of mind refers to an understanding of mental states such as knowing, believing, deceiving or imagining, and tying them together "into a coherent understanding of how mental states and actions are related." This is a behavior cited as being exclusive to human beings above the age of five and possibly, to a lesser degree, to other higher primates such as adult gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos. Typical 5-year-olds can develop insights into other people's knowledge, feelings, and intentions based on social cues (e.g., gestures, vocal tone and facial expressions). An autistic individual may lack these skills, leaving them unable to predict or understand other people's actions or intentions.

Many children with autism experience social alienation during their school-age years. Many report inventing imaginary friends, worlds, or scenarios. Making friends in real life and maintaining those friendships often proves to be difficult for those with autism.

It is common for autistics to have difficulty regulating their behavior. They may cry or engage in verbal outbursts or self-injurious behaviors that seem inappropriate or unprovoked. Those who have autism tend to prefer consistent routines and environments, and often react negatively to changes in their surroundings. Individuals with autism may exhibit poorly modulated behaviors, increased levels of self-stimulatory behavior, self-injury, or extensive withdrawal in unfamiliar or overwhelming situations. However, with socialization education and training, many autistic individuals can learn more appropriate means of coping with difficult social circumstances.

Sensory system

Indicators of autism include oversensitivity or under reactivity to touch, movement, sights, or sounds; physical clumsiness or carelessness; poor body awareness; a tendency to be easily distracted; impulsive physical or verbal behavior; an activity level that is unusually high or low; not unwinding or calming oneself; difficulty learning new movements; difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another; social and/or emotional problems; delays in speech, language or motor skills; specific learning difficulties/delays in academic achievement. However, while most people with autism have some degree of sensory integration difficulty, not every person who has sensory problems is autistic.

Autistic individuals may sometimes also develop obsessions or routines around foods, restricting what is eaten to certain colors, textures or types of food. Alternatively, they may obsessively avoid certain foods with similar characteristics.

An autistic person may have trouble hearing certain people speak, while others are perceived as speaking more loudly than they actually are. An autistic person may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations, such as in a large crowd of people. Such auditory difficulties fall under auditory processing disorders, and like sensory integration dysfunction, are not necessarily experienced by all people with autism or indicative of a diagnosis of autism.

Autism and blindness

The characteristics of a person with both an Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and a severe visual impairment (VI) may vary from a person with just ASD or just VI. Historically, many behaviors of blind children were seen as "autistic-like" but were attributed to their blindness rather than pursuing possibilities of autism.

Developmental trajectories of children with ASD-VI are often very similar as those followed by children with typical autism, but the child with ASD-VI will have particularly unusual responses to sensory information. The person may be overly sensitive to touch or sound, or be less responsive to pain. Typically, touch, smell, and sound are affected the most dramatically.

Communication difficulties

This section called "Communication difficulties" needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section called "Communication difficulties". Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Autism spectrum" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Some people with autism demonstrate advanced cognitive ability, but lack communicative skills or are not inclined to interact with others socially. An example of this is the noted autistic Temple Grandin, who holds a PhD and is a successful developer of livestock handling technologies. She describes her inability to understand the social communication of neurotypicals as leaving her feeling "like an anthropologist on Mars." Grandin's case was described by neurologist Oliver Sacks in his 1995 book titled An Anthropologist on Mars: Seven Paradoxical Tales. Another person with extreme autism is author Tito Mukhopadhyay, one of whose books is The Mind Tree.

Perhaps due to their difficulties communicating with other humans, some autistics have gravitated toward working with animals. Temple Grandin describes her observations and theories about animals, taken from her work with cattle. Dawn Prince-Hughes, diagnosed with Asperger's, describes her observations of gorillas in Songs of the Gorilla Nation.

Some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life, but stop soon afterwards. Others may be delayed, developing language as late as the teenage years. Still, inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unaware of their surroundings or have no desire to communicate. Some individuals with autism learn sign language, participate in online chat rooms, discussion boards, and websites, or use communication devices at autism-community social events such as Autreat.

Autistic people often struggle to let others know what they need. They may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want when they are unable to convey their meaning successfully. Communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed or prone to self-injurious behaviors. Recently, with the awareness that those with autism can have more than one condition, a significant percentage of people with autism are being diagnosed with anxiety and compulsive disorders which may also contribute to behavioral and functioning challenges.

Repetitive behaviors

Although people with autism appear physically normal, unusual repetitive motions (known as self-stimulation or "stimming") may distinguish them from typically developing individuals. Some autisitc individuals repeatedly flap their arms or wiggle their toes, while others will suddenly freeze in position. Some autistic children spend hours arranging objects in a certain way rather than engaging in pretend play as a typical child might, and can become upset and agitated if their work is re-arranged. Repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word, such as perseveration of a single word or phrase. Some may repeat words from movies and watch certain scenes over and over again.

Children with autism may demand consistency in their environment. A slight change in the timing, format or route of a routine or trip can be extremely disturbing to them. . People with autism sometimes have persistent, intense preoccupations. For example, the child might be obsessed with learning all about computers, a certain television program, lighthouses or virtually any other topic.

Effects in education

This section called "Effects in education" needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section called "Effects in education". Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. Find sources: "Autism spectrum" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Children with autism are affected by their symptoms every day, which set them apart from unaffected students. Because of problems with receptive language and theory of mind, they can have difficulty understanding some classroom directions and instruction, along with subtle vocal and facial cues of teachers. This inability to fully decipher the world around them often makes education stressful. Teachers need to be aware of a student's disorder, and ideally should have specific training in autism education, so that they are able to help the student get the best out of his or her classroom experiences.

Some students learn more effectively with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented visually. Because of this, many teachers create “visual schedules” for their autistic students. This allows students to concretely see what is going on throughout the day, so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next. Some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next, so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress.

Research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to autistic children. Autistic students have problems not only with language and communication, but with socialization as well. By facilitating peer interaction, teachers can help their students with autism make friends, which in turn can help them cope with problems or understand the world around them. This can help them to become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom.

A teacher's aide can also be useful to the student. The aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child and can help the child to stay at an equivalent level to the rest of the class through the special one-on-one instruction. However, some argue that students with one-on-one aides may become overly dependent on the help, thus leading to difficulty with independence later on.

There are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students. A teacher needs to become familiar with the child’s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child. Every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them.

Students with autism spectrum disorders sometimes have high levels of anxiety and stress, particularly in social environments like school. If a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior, it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety. Preparing students for new situations, such as through writing social stories, can lower anxiety. Teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as The Incredible 5-Point Scale or other cognitive behavioral strategies can increase a student's ability to control excessive behavioral reactions.

DSM definition

Autism is defined in section 299.00 of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) as:

1. A total of six (or more) items from (1), (2) and (3), with at least two from (1), and one each from (2) and (3):
   1. qualitative impairment in social interaction, as manifested by at least two of the following:
      1. marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye-to-eye gaze, facial expression, body postures, and gestures to regulate social interaction
      2. failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level
      3. a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment, interests, or achievements with other people (e.g., by a lack of showing, bringing, or pointing out objects of interest)
      4. lack of social or emotional reciprocity
   2. qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following:
      1. delay in, or total lack of, the development of spoken language (not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime)
      2. in individuals with adequate speech, marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others
      3. stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language
      4. lack of varied, spontaneous make-believe play or social imitative play appropriate to developmental level
   3. restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests, and activities, as manifested by at least one of the following:
      1. encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus
      2. apparently inflexible adherence to specific, nonfunctional routines or rituals
      3. stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms (e.g., hand or finger flapping or twisting, or complex whole-body movements)
      4. persistent preoccupation with parts of objects
2. Delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years:
   1. social interaction
   2. language as used in social communication
   3. symbolic or imaginative play.
3. The disturbance is not better accounted for by Rett's Disorder or Childhood Disintegrative Disorder.

These are rules of thumb and may not necessarily apply to all diagnosed autistics.

Types of autism

Autism presents in a wide degree, from those who are nearly dysfunctional and apparently mentally disabled to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional ("normal") to others. Although not used or accepted by professionals or within the literature, autistic individuals are often divided into those with an IQ<80 referred to as having "low-functioning autism" (LFA), while those with IQ>80 are referred to as having "high-functioning autism" (HFA). Low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living, rather than to IQ. The terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels. Additionally, a recent review questioned the validity of IQ testing of autistic people.

This discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate IQ with functioning and may refuse to serve high-IQ autistic people who are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks, or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered LFA. For example, some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all, because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible.

As a consequence, many "high-functioning" autistic persons, and autistic people with a relatively high IQ, are under-diagnosed, thus making the claim that "autism implies retardation" self-fulfilling. The number of people diagnosed with LFA is not rising quite as sharply as HFA, indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics. Many also think that ASD's are being over-diagnosed: (1) because the growth in the number and complexity of symptoms associated with autism has increased the chances professionals will erroneously diagnose autism and (2) because the growth in services and therapies for autism has increased the number who falsely qualify for those often free services and therapies.

Asperger's and Kanner's syndromes

In the current Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR), the most significant difference between Autistic Disorder (also known as Kanner's syndrome) and Asperger's syndrome is that a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of "delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas, with onset prior to age 3 years: (1) social interaction, (2) language as used in social communication, or (3) symbolic or imaginative play", while a diagnosis of Asperger's syndrome observes "no clinically significant delay" in the latter two of these areas.

While the DSM-IV does not include level of intellectual functioning in the diagnosis, the fact that those with Asperger's syndrome tend to perform better than those with Kanner's autism has produced a popular conception that Asperger's syndrome is synonymous with "higher-functioning autism", or that it is a lesser disorder than autism. Similarly, there is a popular conception that autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning in fact have Asperger's syndrome, or that both types are merely 'geeks' with a medical label. The popular depiction of autism in the media has been of relatively severe cases (for example, as seen in the films Rain Man and Mercury Rising), and in turn many close friends and relatives of those who have been diagnosed in the autistic spectrum choose to speak of their loved ones as having Asperger's syndrome rather than autism.

The extent to which someone with higher functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome may excel is theoretically quite high. For example, Henry Cavendish, one of history's foremost scientists, may have been autistic. George Wilson, a notable chemist and physician, wrote a book about Cavendish entitled, "The Life of the Honourable Henry Cavendish", published in 1851. From Wilson's detailed description it seems that while Cavendish may have exhibited many classic signs of autism, he nevertheless had an extraordinary mind.

Autism as a spectrum disorder

Another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as autistic spectrum disorders. Autism spectrum disorder is an increasingly popular term that refers to a broad definition of autism including the classic form of the disorder as well as closely related conditions such as PDD-NOS and Asperger's syndrome. Although the classic form of autism can be easily distinguished from other forms of autism spectrum disorder, the terms are often used interchangeably.

A related continuum, Sensory Integration Dysfunction, involves how well humans integrate the information they receive from their senses. Autism, Asperger's syndrome, and Sensory Integration Dysfunction are all closely related and overlap.

Some people believe that there might be two manifestations of classical autism, regressive autism and early infantile autism. Early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of 3 and often around 18 months. Although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin, some speculate that an environmental influence or toxin triggers the disorder. This triggering could occur during gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother's body and is transferred to the fetus. The triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child.

A paper published in 2006 concerning the behavioral, cognitive, and genetic bases of autism argues that autism should perhaps not be seen as a single disorder, but rather as a set of distinct symptoms (social difficulties, communicative difficulties and repetitive behaviors) that have their own distinct causes. An implication of this would be that a search for a "cure" for autism is unlikely to succeed if it is not examined as separate, albeit overlapping, and commonly co-occurring, disorders.

Epidemiology

Gender differences

There is not a clear-cut ratio of incidence between males and females. Studies have found much higher prevalence in males at the high-functioning end of the spectrum, while the ratios appear to be closer to 1:1 at the low-functioning end. In addition, a study published in 2006 suggested that males over 40 are more likely than younger males to parent a child with autism, and that the ratio of autism incidence in males and females is closer to 1:1 with older fathers.

Reported increase with time

There was a worldwide increase in reported cases of autism over the decade to 2006. There are several theories about the apparent sudden increase.

Many epidemiologists argue that the rise in the incidence of autism in the United States is largely attributable to a broadening of the diagnostic concept, reclassifications, public awareness, and the incentive to receive federally mandated services. However, some authors indicate that the existence of an as yet unidentified contributing environmental risk factor cannot be ruled out. On the other hand, a widely-cited pilot study conducted in California by the UC Davis M.I.N.D. Institute (17 October 2002), reported that the increase in autism in California is real, even after accounting for changes to diagnostic criteria.

The question of whether the rise in incidence is real or an artifact of improved diagnosis and a broader concept of autism remains controversial. Dr. Chris Johnson, a professor of pediatrics at the University of Texas Health Sciences Center at San Antonio and co-chair of the American Academy of Pediatrics Autism Expert Panel, sums up the state of the issue by saying, "There is a chance we're seeing a true rise, but right now I do not think anybody can answer that question for sure." (Newsweek reference below).

The answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research, since a real increase would focus more attention (and research funding) on the search for environmental factors, while the alternative would focus more attention to genetics. On the other hand, it is conceivable that certain environmental factors (such as chemicals, infections, medicines, vaccines, diet and societal changes) may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic constitution.

One of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between "geekdom" and autism. This is hinted, for instance, by a Wired Magazine article in 2001 entitled "The Geek Syndrome", which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement. This article, many professionals assert, is just one example of the media's application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior—they argue that shyness, lack of athletic ability or social skills, and intellectual interests, even when they seem unusual to others, are not in themselves signs of autism or Asperger's syndrome. Others assert that children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled 'gifted' are now being labeled with mental disease diagnoses. See clinomorphism for further discussion of this issue.

Due to the recent publicity surrounding autism and autistic spectrum disorders, an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood. Since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic, a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow-up to their children's diagnoses. Because autism falls into the pervasive developmental disorder category, an individual's symptoms must have been present before age seven in order to make a strict differential diagnosis.

Treatment

Autism is sometimes considered to be untreatable, although this point has been disputed. There is a broad array of autism therapies with various goals, e.g. improving health and well-being, emotional problems, difficulties with communication and learning, and sensory problems for people with autism. The efficacy of each approach varies greatly from person to person. To date, Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) is the sole approach that has been scientifically verified as effective in the treatment of autism, though other treatments may be revealed as effective if they are similarly tested.

Dr. Temple Grandin, an associate professor at Colorado State University, is a famous and successful adult with high-functioning autism. She invented a squeeze-box (hug machine) to alleviate autism-related stress.

Causes

The causes and etiology of autism are areas of debate and controversy; there is currently no consensus , and researchers are studying a wide range of possible genetic and environmental causes. Since the way autism manifests is different for each person, there are likely multiple "causes" that interact with each other in subtle and complex ways, and thus give slightly differing outcomes in each individual. Two environmental theories include the impact of vaccines on the immune system (of which a statistically significant link has never been found despite many attempts; see the vaccine theory for a more extensive treatment) and a more recent theory relating autism to high levels of television viewing while young. A correlation has also been found between autism and the mercury emitted from coal power plants, though the implications of this correlation is uncertain. Mercury measurements of hair samples from autistic children's first haircuts were significantly lower than a matched group of normal children, declining as measures of severity increased.

Research claims also link autism with abnormal blood vessel function, and oxidative stress. This line of research may lead to new medical therapies.

Physiology and neurology

Autism appears to involve a greater amount of the brain than previously thought. A study of 112 children (56 with autism and 56 without), published in the Journal of Child Neuropsychology, found those with autism to have more problems with complex tasks, such as tying their shoelaces or writing, which suggests that many areas of the brain are involved. Children with autism performed simple tasks as well as or better than those without. In tests of visual and spatial skills, autistic children did well at finding small objects in complex pictures (e.g., finding the character Waldo in "Where's Waldo" pictures). However, they found it difficult to tell the difference between similar-looking people. Children with autism tended to do well in spelling and grammar, but found it much more difficult to understand complex speech, such as idioms or similes when the meaning of the phrase is figurative. They would, for example, not understand that "He kicked the bucket" meant someone had died, or were likely to actually hop if told to "hop to it".

The inference from this research, according to researchers at the Pittsburgh School of Medicine, is that "These findings show that you cannot compartmentalize autism. It's much more complex.”

The research from this perspective has a number of implications:

• Autism is more than likely a global disorder which affects how the brain processes the information it receives, while complex information tends to make this more readily apparent.
• Neurological ‘wiring’ in people with autism manifest abnormalities in the areas of the brain that communicate with each other.
• Observed abnormalities provide a reasonable explanation for why children with autism have problems with complex tasks which require multiple areas of the brain to work together; autistic people tend to do better in tasks that only require one region of the brain.
• The causes of autism are possibly more pervasive than previously believed; for example, more areas of the brain are affected than just those involving social interaction, communication, interests, and imagination.
• Autism may not be primarily a disorder of social interaction; research must now take into account non-social aspects.

A possible explanation for the characteristics of the syndrome is a variation in the way the brain itself reacts to sensory input and how parts of the brain then handle the information. An electroencephalographic (EEG) study of 36 adults (half of whom had autism) at Washington University in St. Louis found that adults with autism show differences in the manner in which neural activity is coordinated. The implication seems to be that there is poor internal communication between different areas of the brain. (Electroencephalographs, or EEGs, measure the activity of brain cells.)

The study indicated that there were abnormal patterns in the way the brain cells were connected in the temporal lobe of the brain. (The temporal lobe deals with language.) These abnormal patterns would seem to indicate inefficient and inconsistent communication inside the brain of autistic people.

Studies in neuropathology indicate abnormalities in the amygdala, hippocampus, septum, mamillary bodies, limbic system, and the cerebellum.

• Autistic brains are slightly larger and heavier and a larger than normal head circumference is commonly noted.
• In the limbic system, there is an excess of cells and they are too small. The neurons themselves appear to be underdeveloped. Dendritic trees which provide the basis for connections between neurons are truncated (i.e. shortened).
• In the cerebellum, purkinje cells are widely affected. The anatomic differences correlate to the curtailment of development earlier than 30 weeks gestation. In other words, the development of the cells appears to have stopped at some time before the 30th week in utero
• An enlarged third ventricle of the brain appears to accompany autism in those who are non-mentally handicapped, but the reasons for this and its effects are still unknown.

Research has not yet established exactly what is specific to autism and what may be seen in other disorders however.

Individuals with autism are also far more likely to develop epilepsy than would otherwise be expected (estimated 10-30% incidence).

Genetic component

Genetic influence comprises a significant aspect of research in the causes of autism. A large database showing theoretical links between autism and genetic loci summarises research indicating that the genetic influence may extend to every human chromosome. It has been observed in one twin-study in Britain that there was about a 60% concordance rate for autism in monozygotic (identical) twins, while dizygotic (non-identical) twins and other siblings comparatively exhibited about 4% concordance rates. Some research posits that the chances that an identical twin of an autistic person will also be autistic are 85-90%. The increased probabilities of siblings having autism has been calculated at about 35-fold more than normal.

Accompanying impairments are also a common feature of autism. Some people with autism also have gastrointestinal, immunological or neurological symptoms in addition to behavioral impairments. These associated complexes have also lead to the search for specific genetic connections and helped to focus on reasonable genetic implications.

Since genes provide the information for processes and structure at the level of the cell and its components during the growth and development of a human as well as maintenance during life, gene mutations (altered versions) and deletions (complete absence of genetic material) and possibly extra copies of genes would mean that the causes of autism begin very early. If a mutated gene fails to perform properly, then cells, proteins, enzymes and other crucial aspects of normal function may be significantly altered and operate incorrectly. Deletions could mean the complete absence of a sequence of events due to missing proteins or cell components for example. These genetic alterations and deletions will simply bring about a changed structure or process which effects a great many other needed structures and processes.

Another important aspect of research in genetic factors is environmental effects and the incidence of autism. During the lifetime of a person, gene mutations and deletions may be environmentally triggered or exacerbated. Conversely, it may also be that environment will not be a factor and nothing will change the autism characteristics. For autism, the answer to these possible explanations is still being researched and there is evidence that both may be true simply because there is more than one way a person may develop autism.

Deletions and Mutations

Deleted genes have been noted as a probable influence or cause in autism. By locating specific missing genetic material the significance may be that specific genetic sites for autism controlling or causing autism (autism susceptibility alleles) may be located precisely. Another significant aspect of this research is that these deletions of genetic material indicate that autism may be established in some cases during meiosis (error-prone meiosis model) and this places the genesis of autism in some at the very beginning of life.

One very important question in this line of research is whether or not gene deletions are a cause or consequence of autism-susceptibility loci located elsewhere in the chromosomes.

Gene mutations may mean a gene does not function at all or does not function in the normal way. Since genes direct how the body grows and develops, mutations, like deletions, will affect a person at the most basic levels.

Mutation and deletion effects have been delineated in numerous research publications..

Correlated characteristics include global developmental delay, mild to severe delay of speech, social communication disorders and cognitive abilities, autistic like behaviour, high tolerance of pain, and repetitive mannerisms (e.g. chewing or mouthing).

Gene interaction may also complicate the causes leading to multiple genetic origins of autism, In a cascade like effect, when a gene loci is altered or omitted, others are effected due to change in interaction between genes and/or their functions.

Though not present in all individuals with autism, these mutations and deletions hold potential to point the way to more the genetic components of spectrum disorders. The research also advanced basic understanding in the genetic architecture of the genome of autistic individuals and will help in focusing future research.

One practical aspect of this type of research may be the development of a test that would confirm the autism diagnosis in children exhibiting symptoms and identify families who carry genetic defects that could be inherited by their children.

Mirror neurons

A theory featuring mirror neurons states that autism may involve a dysfunction of specialized neurons in the brain that should activate when observing other people. In typically-developing people, these mirror neurons are thought to perhaps play a major part in social learning and general comprehension of the actions of others.

Sociology

Due to the complexity of autism, there are many facets of sociology that need to be considered when discussing it, such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another. In addition, there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community, sometimes in strong opposition to one another.

Community and politics

Curing autism is a very highly controversial and politicized issue. What some call the "autistic community" has splintered into several strands. Some seek a cure for autism - sometimes dubbed by pro-cure. Others do not desire a "cure", because they point out that autism is a way of life rather than a "disease", and as such resist it. They are sometimes dubbed anti-cure. Many more may have views between these two. Recently, with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to effective remedies, some members of the "anti-cure" movement sent a letter to the United Nations demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a mental disability or disease.

There are many resources available for autistic people. Because many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person, a large number of these resources are online. In addition, successful autistic adults, using their own experience in developing coping strategies and/or interacting with society, are often involved at the community level with children with autism, using their own experience in developing coping strategies and/or interacting with society.

The year 2002 was declared Autism Awareness Year in the United Kingdom (see Autistic Community article).

Culture

With the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics, an autistic culture has begun to develop. Similar to deaf culture, autistic culture is based on a more accepting belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured. There are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture, not just "autistic culture".

It is a common misperception that autistic people do not marry; many do seek out close relationships and marry. Often, they marry another autistic, although this is not always the case. Autistic people are often attracted to other autistic people due to shared interests or obsessions, but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types, the same as for non-autistics. Autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else.

It is also a common misperception that autistic people live away from other people, such as in a rural area rather than an urban area; many autistics do happily live in a suburb or large city. However, a metropolitan area can provide more opportunities for cultural and personal conflicts, requiring greater needs for adjustment.

In schools it is commonplace for autistics to be singled out by teachers and students as "unruly," though an autistic student may not understand why his or her actions are considered inappropriate, especially when the student has a logical explanation for his or her behavior.

The interests of autistic people and so-called "geeks" or "nerds" can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects, much like anyone else. However, in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups, which impairs them even in the most 'geeky' of situations. The connection of autism with so-called geek or nerd behavior has received attention in the popular press, but is still controversial within these groups.

Speculation arises over famous people and celebrities who are now suspected, but unconfirmed, of having autism and Asperger's syndrome. They are rumored to have most symptoms of autism or autistic-spectrum disorder. Biographers, personal physicians and media journalists continually investigate these rumors, but some say that the claims are actually libellous of their character as public figures, being singled out as "odd" or "nerdy" people.

Autistic adults

Communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of an autistic adult's life. A much smaller proportion of adult autistics marry or have children than the general population. Even when they do marry, some argue, they are more likely to be divorced than the norm, although further research is being made. Nevertheless, as more social groups form, progressively more diagnosed adults are forming relationships with others on the spectrum.

A small proportion of autistic adults, usually those with high-functioning autism or Asperger's syndrome, are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs, although frequently far below their actual level of skills and qualification. Some have managed to gain self-employment.

Others are employed in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities. A nurturing environment at home, at school, and later in job training and at work, helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives.

It is often said that the Internet, since it is almost devoid of the non-verbal cues that autistics find so hard to interact with, has given some autistic individuals an environment in which they can, and do, communicate and form online communities. The internet has also provided the option of occupations such as, teleworking and independent consulting, which, in general, do not require much human interaction offline.

Under the public law, in the United States, the public schools' responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is 21 years of age. The autistic person and their family are then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match their particular needs, as well as the programs and facilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals.

Many parents of autistic children also face financial difficulties as they must often pay for essential support and therapeutic services. Furthermore, autism is often linked to poverty because autistics who might qualify for financial assistance in one country are not eligible in another, because some nations do not recognize autism as a disability.

Terminology

When referring to someone who is diagnosed with autism, the term "autistic" is often used. Alternatively, many prefer to use the person-first terminology "person with autism" or "person who experiences autism." However, it has been noted that members of the autistic community generally prefer "autistic person" for reasons that are fairly controversial. This article uses both terminologies.

Autistic savants

The autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people. Savant syndrome occurs in about 10% of autistic people and in about 1% of non-autistic people. The term "autistic savant" is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in one or more areas of study (the incidence of multiple skills tend to occur more often in autistic savants than non-autistic savants). Although there is a common association between savants and autism (an association made especially popular by the 1988 film Rain Man), most autistic people are not savants and savantism is not unique to autistic people, though there does seem to be some relation. Mental calculators and fast computer programming skills are the most common form. A well known example is Daniel Tammet, the subject of the documentary film The Brain Man (Kim Peek, one of the inspirations for Dustin Hoffman's character in the film Rain Man, is not autistic). Bright Splinters of the Mind by Beate Hermelin is a book that explores this issue further.

Other pervasive developmental disorders

Autism and Asperger's syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders (PDDs). The three other pervasive developmental disorders are Rett syndrome, Childhood disintegrative disorder, and Pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified. Some of these are related to autism, while some of them are entirely separate conditions.

See also

• General

• Asperger syndrome
• Phelan-McDermid 22q13 deletion syndrome
• Autism rights movement
• Autism therapies
• Causes of autism
• Conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders
• Developmental disability
• Early infantile autism
• Educational psychology
• Einstein syndrome
• EQ SQ Theory
• Heritability of autism
• Simon Baron-Cohen

• Groups

• Aspies For Freedom
• Generation Rescue
• National Alliance for Autism Research
• Wrong Planet
• Autism Sunday

• Controversy

• Controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum
• Controversies in autism
• Ethical challenges to autism treatment

• Lists

• List of autism-related topics
• List of people on the autistic spectrum
• List of fictional characters on the autistic spectrum

Notes

1. Autism Overview, eMedicineHealth Retrieved on April 20, 2007
2. Diagnostic Criteria for Autistic Disorder Indiana Resource Center for Autism, Indiana Institute on Disability and Community, Indiana University. Retrieved Feb. 27, 2007
3. ICD version 2006, World Health Organisation Codes for Pervasive developmental disorders, F84.0-F84.9, retrieved 20 January, 2007
4. more commonly known as the DSM-IV-TR, i.e. the fourth edition with text revision. Relevant DSM codes are: 307.9 Communication Disorder Not Otherwise Specified, Pervasive Developmental Disorders, 299.00 Autistic Disorder, 299.80 Rett's Disorder, 299.10 Childhood Disintegrative Disorder, 299.80 Asperger's Disorder, 299.80 Pervasive Developmental Disorder Not Otherwise Specified (Including Atypical Autism), Attention-Deficit and Disruptive Behavior Disorders, Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder
5. American Psychiatric Association Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC, 1994)
6. "Autism 'more common than thought'" BBC News (2006) July 13
7. "NIH Autism Overview 2005" (PDF). Retrieved 2006-02-05.
8. Addendum to Autism Spectrum Disorders February 2007 National Institute of Mental Health. February 2007
9. Sinclair, Jim. "Do not Mourn for Us." http://ani.autistics.org/dont_mourn.html Accessed: 23 January 2007
10. The People at Autistics. Org http://www.autistics.org/library/dawson.html Accessed: 23 January 2007
11. Harmon, Amy. "How About not Curing Us? Some Autistics are Pleading." New York Times. 20 December 2004. A copy on the web was accessed at the URL http://www.co-brass.com/articles_how_about_not_curing_us.htm on 23 January 2007
12. Dawson, Michelle. "The Misbehavior of Behavioralists." 18 January 2004. http://www.sentex.net/~nexus23/naa_aba.html. Accessed: 23 January 2007.
13. Autism Through Ages Baffles Science Robert Williams Jr., Pediatric Services
14. "Interview with Lorna Jean King, OTR, FAOTA". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
15. "Epistemological aspects of Eugen Bleuler's conception of schizophrenia in 1911." Stotz-Ingenlath G., Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy. 2000;3(2):153-9. ISSN:1386-7423
16. "Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)" National Institute of Mental Health
17. Kanner, L. Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child 2, 217–250 (1943)
18. Time to give up on a single explanation for autism Francesca Happé, Angelica Ronald & Robert Plomin (2006) Nature Neuroscience - 9, 1218 - 1220. Published online: 26 September 2006
19. "What Is Asperger Syndrome?" Barbara L. Kirby, Online Asperger Syndrome Information and Support
20. *Frombonne E. (2002). "Prevalence of childhood disintegrative disorder". Autism. 6 (2): 149–157.
21. Volkmar RM and Rutter M. (1995). "Childhood disintegrative disorder: Results of the DSM-IV autism field trial". Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. 34: 1092–1095.
22. "Rett syndrome (NIH Publication No. 01-4960)". Rett syndrome. Rockville, MD: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2001. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
23. Autism Overview: What We Know National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. Retrieved 26 January, 2007
24. Center for Autism Research article on head circumference Retrieved November 13 2006
25. Lainhart JE, Bigler ED, Bocian M, Coon H, Dinh E, Dawson G, Deutsch CK, Dunn M, Estes A, Tager-Flusberg H, Folstein S, Hepburn S, Hyman S, McMahon W, Minshew N, Munson J, Osann K, Ozonoff S, Rodier P, Rogers S, Sigman M, Spence MA, Stodgell CJ, Volkmar F. 2006. >on-line abstract
26. "Study Provides Evidence That Autism Affects Functioning of Entire Brain-Previous View Held Autism Limited to Communication, Social Behavior, and Reasoning" National Institutes of Health, (Aug, 16, 2006)
27. The Epidemiology of Asperger Syndrome: A Total Population Study Stephan Ehlers and Christopher Gillberg (1993) The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, Vol. 34, No. 8, pp. 1327-1350, November. Reprinted with Permission by Cambridge University Press. This seminal article discusses the nature of variations in diagnostic criteria in Asperger's and Autism
28. "Autism Overview: What we know" Filipek et al. (1999). Screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6): 439-484. Cited in NICHD publications reference. Retrieved 26 January 2007
29. "Autism Overview: What we know" Filipek et al. (1999). Screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6): 439-484. Cited in NICHD publications reference. Retrieved 26 January 2007
30. Davidovitch, Michael; Glick, Lilach; Holtzman, Gabriela; Tirosh, Emanuel; Safir, Marilyn P.. "Developmental Regression in Autism: Maternal Perception." Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders, Apr2000, Vol. 30 Issue 2, p113, 7p.
31. Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind'? Cognition, 21, 37-46.
32. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. The MIT Press. p.51
33. Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness: An Essay on Autism and Theory of Mind. The MIT Press. p.125
34. Williams, D: "Nobody Nowhere", Transworld Publishers, 1991
35. "Autism's picky eaters" Ahearn WH, Castine T, Nault K, Green G. (The New England Center for Children, Southboro, MA) Autism Today. An assessment of food acceptance in children with autism or pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified.
36. Gense, Marilyn H., and D. Jay Gense. "Autism Spectrum Disorders in Learners with Blindness/Vision Impairments." RE: View (1994). 5 May 2006 <http://focusfamilies.org/focus/docs/blindnessandautism.pdf PDF>
37. "Examples of Symptom Presentation in Blind/Autistic Children in Contrast to Blind/Non-Autistic Children a la DSM-IV Criter". Retrieved 2007-01-25. T. Pawletko & L. Rocissano (2000) Texas School for Blind and Visually Impaired
38. "Info on autism". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
39. Mind Tree Poems National Geographic Magazine OnLine Extra (March 2005) Retrieved Feb. 28, 2007
40. Temple Grandin "Animals In Translation "
41. [http://www.freewilliamsburg.com/june_2004/gorilla.html Songs of the Gorilla Nation: My Journey Through Autism] Book review of Dawn Prince-Hughes by J. Stefan-Cole. (June 2004) Free Wiliamsburg. Issue 21
42. Crosland, K.A. (2001-05-25). "Prevalence of stereotypy among children diagnosed with autism at a tertiary referral clinic" (pdf). Presented at the Association for Behavioral Analysis annual conference. Retrieved 2006-07-01. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
43. Edelson, Stephen M. (1995). "Stereotypic (Self-Stimulatory) Behavior (Stimming)". Retrieved 2006-07-01.
44. "Autism Overview: What we know" Filipek et al. (1999). Screening and diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 29(6): 439-484. Cited in NICHD publications reference. Retrieved 26 January 2007
45. "Working with Autistic Chilren". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
46. "Facts on autism". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
47. Edelson, M.G. (2006). Are the majority of children with autism mentally retarded?: A systematic evaluation of the data. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities, 21, 66-83. Reprint online at http://www.willamette.edu/dept/comm/reprint/edelson/, retrieved 15 April 2007
48. "Many times, if the researchers had a child they couldn't test, they just assumed he or she was retarded and assigned a low IQ score." Professor challenges autism assumption. The Oregonian, November 25, 2006.. Retrieved 2007-02-25.
49. "BehaveNet autism description". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
50. "BehaveNet aspergers description". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
51. "Henry Cavendish: An early case of Asperger's syndrome?" Oliver Sachs (Albert Einstein College of Medicine) Neurological Foundation of New Zealand (Reprinted with permission from the American Neurological Association)
52. Happe F, Ronald A, Plomin R. Time to give up on a single explanation for autism. Nat Neurosci. 2006 October;9(10):1218-20.
53. Volkmar, F.R., Szatmari, P. & Sparro, S.S. (1993). Sex differences in pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 23(4), 579-591.
54. Reichenberg, Abraham (September 2006). "Advancing Paternal Age and Autism" (PDF). Archives of General Psychiatry. 63 (9): 1026–1032. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
55. Vince, Gaia (September 2006). "Older dads boost risk of autistic children". NewScientist.com. Layman's synopsis of the A. Reichenberg article
56. Jick, H (December 2003). "Epidemiology and causes of autism". Pharmacotherapy. 23 (12): 1524–30. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
57. Rutter, M (January 2005). "Incidence of autism spectrum disorders: changes over time and their meaning". Acta Paediatrica. 94 (1): 2–15.
58. "Report to the Legislature on the Principal Findings of the Epidemiology of Autism in California Pilot Study" (PDF). {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
59. Stenson, Jacqueline (24 February 2005). "As autism cases soar, a search for clues". Newsweek. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
60. Silberman, Steve (December 2001). "The Geek Syndrome". Wired.
61. "National autism conference claiming it to be incurable". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
62. "Argument against autism being incurable". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
63. "Webpage discussing the effectiveness of ABA". Retrieved 2007-01-25.
64. "The Woman who Thinks like a Cow". Retrieved 2007-06-24.
65. ""Closer to Truth: PBS, with Paul Ewald"". Retrieved 2005-07-30.
66. ""Does television cause autism"" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-02-26.
67. Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas.
68. Holmes, A.S. (2003), "Reduced levels of mercury in first baby haircuts of autistic children.", International Journal of Toxicology, 22 (4), Taylor & Francis: 277–285 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
69. "Penn Researchers Find Link Between Autism and Abnormal Blood-Vessel Function and Oxidative Stress". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
70. "Study Provides Evidence That Autism Affects Functioning of Entire Brain-Previous View Held Autism Limited to Communication, Social Behavior, and Reasoning" National Institutes of Health, (Aug, 16, 2006)
71. ^ “Autism 'affects all of the brain'” BBC News (2006) Wednesday, 16 August Cite error: The named reference "Flaw" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
72. “Clue to flaws in autistic brain” BBC News (2006) Saturday, 14 October
73. Pathophysiology of Autism: Brain Mechanisms M. Denckla (08/15/2006) National Institute of Mental Health
74. Hardan, A., Minshew, N., Mallikarjuhn, M., Keshavan, M. (2001). Brain Volume in Autism. Journal of Child Neurology, 16, 421-424.
75. Pathophysiology of Autism: Brain Mechanisms M. Denckla (08/15/2006) National Institute of Mental Health
76. Autism and epilepsy: Cause, consequence, comorbidity, or coincidence?, Lidia Gabis, John Pomeroy, and Mary R. Andriola, in Epilepsy & Behavior 7 (2005) 652–656
77. Presence of Large Deletions in Kindreds with Autism Yu C., Dawson G., Munson J., D'Souza I., Osterling J., Estes A., Leutenegger A., Flodman P., Smith M., Raskind W., Spence M., McMahon W., Wijsman E., Schellenberg G. (2002). American Journal of Human Genetics, 71, 100-115.
78. The Autism Chromosome Rearrangement Database Retrieved November 19 2006
79. Bailey A., Le Couteur A., Gottesman I., Bolton P., Simonoff E., Yuzda E., Rutter M. (1995). Autism as a strongly genetic disorder: evidence from a British twin study. Psychological Medicine, 25, 63–77.
80. Bolton P., MacDonald H., Pickles A., Rios P., Goode S., Crowson M., Bailey A., Rutter M. (1994). A case-control family history study of autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 35, 877–900.
81. When nerve cells can’t make contact Physorg.co, (2006) Sept. 22 Retrieved March 3, 2007
82. ^ Gene Linked to Autism in Families with More Than One Affected Child National Institutes of Health News(2006) Oct. Retrieved March 3, 2007
83. Presence of Large Deletions in Kindreds with Autism Yu et al (2002) Am J Hum Genet. July; 71(1): 100–115.
84. The neuronal scaffold protein Shank3 mediates signaling and biological function of the receptor tyrosine kinase Ret in epithelial cells G. Schuetz et al (2004) Journal of Cell Biology. Volume 167, Number 5, 945-952
85. Researchers Find Rare Mutations in SHANK3 Gene Are Associated with Autism Synopsis of information from Nature Genetics (January 2007). Cure Autism Now. Retrieved March 3, 2007
86. Neuroligins Kristen Harris (2001) Cell adhesion at synapses Synapse Web, Laboratory of Synapse Structure and Function. Human Brain Project. National Institute of Mental Health and the National Institute of Drug Abuse
87. Neuroligins Organize Excitatory and Inhibitory Postsynaptic Membrane E. R. Graf et al, (2004). Cell Issue 119, pages 1013-1026
88. Neuroligin Mutations as a Cause of Autism K. Chew Autism Vox Retrieved March 3, 2007
89. Deletion 22q13 Syndrome M. C Phelan (2003) Orphanet.com
90. Researchers Find Rare Mutations in SHANK3 Gene Are Associated with Autism Synopsis of information from Nature Genetics (January 2007). Cure Autism Now. Retrieved March 3, 2007
91. Deletion 22q13 Syndrome M. C Phelan (2003) Orphanet.com
92. December 2006; doi:10.1038/ng1933, Nature Genetics)
93. Oberman L., Hubbard E., McCleery J., Altschuler E., Ramachandran V., Pineda J. (2006). EEG evidence for mirror neuron dysfunction in autism spectrum disorders, Brain Research: Cognitive Brain Research, 24(2), 190-198.
94. Dapretto, M. (2006). Understanding emotions in others: mirror neuron dysfunction in children with autism spectrum disorders. Nature Neuroscience, 9(1), 28-30.
95. "autistics.org: The REAL Voice of Autism (See above)". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
96. "Geeks and autism". Retrieved 2007-01-26.
97. "List of famous people with autistic traits". Retrieved 2007-01-26.
98. "Asperger syndrome and adults, Dr Isabelle Henault". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
99. "Auties.org, a self employment site". Retrieved 2007-01-26.
100. The Diary, July-August 2005, publication of the Autism Society of Washington, page 4, accessed 4 February 2007 Autistic adults at the Autism Society of America 2005 Conference felt that the term "individuals with autism" separates their autism from who they are. In other words, they believe their autism is part of who they are and want to be called "autistic adults.
101. "Savant prevalence". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
102. Heaton, P. & Wallace, G.L. (2004). Annotation: The savant syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45(5), 899-911.
103. "Guardian "Brain Man" article". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)

References

• Stenson, Jacqueline (24 February 2005). "As autism cases soar, a search for clues". Newsweek. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Goode, Erica (26 January 2004). "Autism Statistics: More and More Autism Cases". New York Times. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Wing L, Potter D. (2002). "The epidemiology of autistic spectrum disorders: is the prevalence rising?". Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 8 (3): 151–61. (abstract)
• Croen LA, Grether JK, Hoogstrate J, Selvin S. (2002 June). "The changing prevalence of autism in California". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 32 (3): 207–15. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: year (link) (abstract)
• Manev R, Manev H. Aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism: a speculative hypothesis. BMC Psychiatry. 2001;1:5. Epub 2001 10 October.
• Strock, Margaret (2004). Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders). NIH Publication No. NIH-04-5511, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Bethesda, MD, 40 pp. http://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autism.cfm
• Mark Geier, M.D., Ph.D., David A. Geier, B.S., American Physicians and Surgeons, March 10 2006
• Robert Kennedy, Jr., Rolling Stone Magazine, June 14 2006
• Bruno Bettelheim: "Empty Fortress", Publisher: Free Press; 1972, ISBN 0-02-903140-0
• Yazbak, F. Edward (2003). "Autism in the United States: a Perspective". Journal of American Physicians and Surgeons. 8(4). 103-107.
• Donald Meltzer: "Explorations in Autism: A Psycho-Analytical Study", Publisher: Karnac Books, 1975, ISBN 0-902965-03-4
• Frances Tustin: "Autism and Childhood Psychosis", Publisher: Karnac Books; 1995, ISBN 1-85575-110-0
• Donna Williams : "Nobody Nowhere", Publisher: Transworld; 1991, ISBN 0-385-40298-8 (now republished 1998 by Jessica Kingsley Publishers ISBN 1-85302-718-9)
• Judy & Sean Barron: There's a Boy in Here, ISBN 1885477864 (paperback, 279 pages, Future Horizons, 2002

External links

1. Part 1
4. Part 4

• CHildren's Intervetion Learning & Development - With it’s dynamic treatment intervention philosophy (MDIM©), and cutting edge service delivery, CH.I.L.D.’s reputation has exceeded it’s goals of becoming a distinguished leader in developmental disabilities.
  

• DMOZ link directory Open Directory Project. Internet directory with a wide range in related topics and veracity.
• Fact sheets on Autism and Aspergers syndrome Diagnosis, early intervention, behavioral management, communication issues, personal stories and parenting strategies
• National Institutes of Health Primary research site
• 'All Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders): A detailed booklet that describes symptoms, causes, and treatments, with information on getting help and coping', National Institute of Mental Health (2004)

• Addendum 2007 Addendum 2007 to All Autism Spectrum Disorders (Pervasive Developmental Disorders)

• Autism Fact Sheet National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services

• NINDS Pervasive Developmental Disorders Information Page National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke Information link portal

• CDC Autism Information Center National Center on Birth Defects and Developmental Disabilities (NCBDDD) Centers for Disease Control

• 'Learn the Signs. Act Early. Autism Spectrum Disorders Fact Sheet' Centers for Disease Control. Note, as of Feb. 26, CDC had a large number of related Fact Sheets

• Temple Grandin, Ph.D. "Autism - The Way I See It" - Temple Grandin, Assoc. Professor, Colorado State University. Professor Grandin has Asperger's Syndrome and has written extensively on her perspective of autistic people.
• MAAP Services for Autism and Asperger Syndrome Primary portal to organizations and seminal research. Maintained by Cambridge University, Autism Research Centre and Stanford University Child and Adolescent Psychiatry-Autism and Asperger Research Reports.
• National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities Information portal maintained by Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP), U.S. Department of Education.
• Autism.org - Center for the Study of Autism
• Research Autism - UK charity which provides free, impartial and scientifically validated information about autism interventions.
• Autism Speaks
• Autism Hub

1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=11696245&query_hl=60

• Autism
• Pervasive Developmental Disorders
• Communication disorders
• Disability
• Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ICD
• Neurological disorders