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Alger Hiss testifying

Alger Hiss (November 11, 1904 – November 15, 1996) was a U.S. State Department official involved in the establishment of the United Nations. He was accused of being a Soviet spy in 1948 and convicted of perjury in connection with this charge in 1950. The release of secret Soviet cables in 1996 provided strong evidence of Hiss's guilt.

Early life and career

Born in Baltimore, Maryland to Mary Lavinia Hughes and Charles Alger Hiss, Hiss was educated at Baltimore City College high school and Johns Hopkins University, where he was a member of Alpha Delta Phi fraternity. In 1929, he received his law degree from Harvard Law School, where he was a protégé of Felix Frankfurter, the future Supreme Court justice. Before joining a Boston law firm, he served for a year as clerk to Supreme Court Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. That same year, Hiss married the former Mrs. Priscilla Hobson, who later worked for the Library of Congress.

In 1933, he entered government service, working in several areas as an attorney in President Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal, starting with the Agricultural Adjustment Administration (AAA). Hiss worked for the Nye Committee, which investigated and documented wartime profiteering by military contractors during World War I. He served briefly in the Justice Department.

Both Alger Hiss and his brother Donald Hiss began working in the United States Department of State in 1936. Alger served as assistant to Francis B. Sayre, a son-in-law of Woodrow Wilson, and later became special assistant to the Director of the Office of Far Eastern Affairs and in 1944 became a special assistant to the Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs (OSPA), a policy-making office that concentrated on postwar planning for international organization. He later became the director of OSPA, and, as such, he was executive secretary at the Dumbarton Oaks Conference, which finalized plans for the organization that would become the United Nations.

In 1945, Hiss was a member of the U.S. delegation to the wartime Yalta conference, where the 'Big Three' (Franklin D. Roosevelt, Joseph Stalin, and Winston Churchill) met to coordinate strategy to defeat Hitler, draw the map of postwar Europe and continue with plans to set up the United Nations. Hiss's role at Yalta was limited to work on the United Nations. At one point Stalin made a request for 16 votes for the Soviet Union in the U.N. General Assembly and Hiss led the U.S. opposition to Stalin's request. In the final compromise, Stalin was given two additional votes, for Byelorussia (today's Belarus) and Ukraine. Hiss's opposition to Stalin's move has been cited by his supporters as evidence that Hiss was not a Soviet agent. Hiss served as the secretary-general of the United Nations Conference on International Organization (the United Nations Charter Conference) in San Francisco in 1945. Hiss later became the full Director of the Office of Special Political Affairs.

Hiss left government service in 1946 and became president of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, where he served until May 5, 1949.

Accusation of espionage

File:ChambersHUAC1.jpg
Whittaker Chambers testifies before HUAC as Hiss (circled) listens

In a 1948 appearance before the House Committee on Un-American Activities (HUAC), Whittaker Chambers, a senior editor at Time magazine and a former Communist spy turned government informer, accused Alger Hiss of being a member of the Communist Party.

Alger Hiss voluntarily appeared before HUAC to deny being a Communist. Some Committee members had misgivings at first about attacking Hiss, since he had recently served as a senior level official in the State Department.

Congressman Richard Nixon, acting on information he had been secretly receiving from the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) and Roman Catholic priest John Francis Cronin, pressed the Committee to continue the investigation. After being asked to identify Chambers from a photograph, Hiss indicated that his face "might look familiar" and requested to see him in person. When he later confronted Chambers in a hotel room, with HUAC representatives present, Hiss claimed that he had known Chambers as "George Crosley," and had allowed him to live in his home when "Crosley" was destitute in the mid-1930s. Later, Hiss claimed that he had given "Crosley" an old car, which allegedly ended up in the hands of the American Communist party.

Because Chambers's testimony was given in a congressional hearing, his statements were privileged against defamation suits. Hiss challenged him to repeat his charges in public without the benefit of such protection. After Chambers publicly reiterated his charge that Hiss was a Communist on the radio program Meet the Press, Hiss instituted a libel lawsuit against Chambers.

Chambers responded by now claiming that Hiss had been a spy, and he presented the "Baltimore Documents" on November 17, 1948, which were copies of a series of government documents that he had allegedly obtained from Hiss in the 1930s, after Priscilla Hiss allegedly retyped the originals on the family's Woodstock typewriter. Never explained was why the documents could not be photographed directly, since retyping them could have introduced errors. However, the typewriter would become the key piece of evidence used to convict Hiss.

Both Chambers and Hiss had denied any act of espionage in their testimony before the HUAC. By introducing the "Baltimore Documents," Chambers opened both Hiss and himself to perjury charges.

On the evening of December 2, 1948, Chambers produced the so-called Pumpkin Papers: five rolls of 35 mm film, two of which contained State Department documents. The film had been hidden in a hollowed-out pumpkin on Chambers's Maryland farm the previous day.

In 1938 French Prime Minister Édouard Daladier advised US Ambassador William Bullitt that French intelligence believed both Alger and Donald Hiss were working for Soviet intelligence. Igor Gouzenko, who defected to Canada in 1945, also claimed that an individual in the State Department was a spy.

Perjury trials, conviction and after

Alger Hiss in Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary
(Photos courtesy of the Federal Bureau of Prisons)

Hiss was charged with two counts of perjury; the grand jury could not indict him for espionage since the statute of limitations had run out. Hiss went to trial twice. The first trial started on May 31, 1949, but ended in a hung jury on July 7, 1949. Hiss's character witnesses at his first trial included such notables as future Democratic presidential candidate Adlai Stevenson, Supreme Court Justice Felix Frankfurter, and former Democratic presidential candidate John W. Davis. The second trial lasted from November 17, 1949, to January 21, 1950.

At both trials, a key piece of evidence was a typewriter that was presented as one the Hisses had owned at the time of Hiss's alleged espionage work with Chambers. FBI experts testified that matching of the type established that this typewriter had been used to type the Baltimore Documents. This was in keeping with Chambers's testimony that Priscilla Hiss retyped stolen documents so the originals could be returned and the copies photographed later. In the second trial some slight corroboration of Chambers's account was given in the form of testimony from Hede Massing, an American ex-Communist who recounted a meeting with Hiss in which they both spoke obliquely about their Communist activities. At the second trial, the jury found Hiss guilty on two counts of perjury.

The verdict was upheld by the Court of Appeals and the Supreme Court of the United States. Hiss was sentenced to five years imprisonment on January 25, 1950, and served 44 months at the Lewisburg Federal Prison before being released November 27, 1954.

The case heightened public concern about Soviet espionage penetration of the U.S. government in the 1930s and 1940s. As a native-born, well-educated, and highly connected government official, Alger Hiss did not have the profile of a typical spy. Publicity surrounding the case also fed the early political career of Richard M. Nixon, helping him move from the U.S. House of Representatives to the U.S. Senate in 1950, and to the Vice Presidency of the United States in 1952.

While in prison, Hiss acted as a voluntary attorney, advisor and tutor for many of his fellow inmates. After his release, Hiss, who had been disbarred, worked as a salesman for a stationery company. In 1957 his book In the Court of Public Opinion was published. The book contained detailed arguments against the prosecution's case against him, with particular emphasis on the theory that the typewritten documents traced to his typewriter had been forged. He separated from his first wife Priscilla in 1959, though he did not remarry until after Priscilla's death in 1986. In 1988 he wrote an autobiography, Recollections of a Life. Hiss maintained his innocence and fought his perjury conviction until his death at age 92 on November 15, 1996.

Later evidence, pro and con

Testimony by Nathaniel Weyl

In February 1952, Nathaniel Weyl testified before the McCarran Committee that he had been a member of the Ware group in 1933 and that Alger Hiss was also a member at this time. His testimony corroborated that of Chambers, but Weyl had not testified at Hiss's trial, leaving Chambers as the only witness to testify at first hand that Hiss was a Communist or a spy. By 1952 Hiss had already been convicted, and thus, Weyl's belated testimony was moot. In 1950, after Hiss's conviction, Weyl wrote a book on the history of treason in America. In the chapter of this book that Weyl devoted to the Hiss case, he expressed doubt about Hiss's guilt and made no reference to the personal knowledge about the case that would later be the basis of his testimony before the McCarran Committee. This apparent discrepancy and his failure to come forward as a witness in the Hiss trials have never been explained by Weyl.

Evidence of government misconduct at the Hiss trials

As a result of Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) suits by Hiss and others, Department of Justice documents became public in 1975 and revealed the following facts:

  • That an FBI agent knowingly committed perjury at the Hiss trial, testifying it was impossible to forge a document by typewriter.
  • With regard to the typewriter introduced as evidence at the trial, the FBI knew that there was an apparent inconsistency between its alleged manufacture date and its serial number but illegally withheld this information from Hiss.
  • That the FBI had an informer on the Hiss defense team, a private detective named Horace W. Schmahl. Hired by the Hiss defense team, Schmahl reported on the Hiss defense strategy to the government.
  • That the prosecution had illegally withheld from Hiss and his lawyers the information that the FBI had records of intensive surveillance of Hiss including phone taps and mail openings and that none of these showed any indication that Hiss was a spy or a Communist.
  • The content of the "Pumpkin Papers," which showed that of the five rolls of microfilm that Nixon had described as evidence of the "most serious series of treasonable activities … in the history of America," one roll is completely blank and information on two more rolls are faintly legible copies of Navy Dept documents relating to such subjects as life rafts, parachutes and fire extinguishers, information which was easily obtainable at any time from the open shelves at the Bureau of Standards, and two other rolls are photographs of State Department documents which were introduced as evidence at Hiss's 2 trials in 1949 and 1950.

After the FOIA disclosures, Hiss was readmitted to the bar in Massachusetts in 1975 without the usual admission of guilt or expression of remorse, which is usually required when a disbarred lawyer is readmitted. The Supreme Court, which by this time contained several Nixon appointees, including Chief Justice Warren Burger, refused to nullify the Hiss perjury conviction, thus preventing the complete exoneration Hiss had sought.

Remanufactured typewriter theory

At both trials, FBI typewriter experts testified that the Baltimore Documents in Chambers's possession matched samples of typing done by Priscilla Hiss on the Hiss's home typewriter in the 1930s. The Woodstock typewriter that had been owned by the Hisses at this time was presented as evidence in the trials. Ironically, the defense investigators had tracked down the family's old typewriter on their own, hoping that examination of the actual machine would point up flaws in the FBI's matching of documents. This proved not to be the case, as tests with the typewriter only seemed to confirm the FBI's analysis.

Since the trials, several apparent discrepancies have been noted in the typewriter evidence presented by the prosecution. This includes expert testimony that the typewriter presented in evidence (as Exhibit #UUU) was not the same one that produced earlier typing samples from the Hiss household, expert testimony that Priscilla Hiss was not the typist of the Baltimore Documents, testimony by former Woodstock executives that the serial number of the Exhibit #UUU typewriter was inconsistent with the year when the Hiss typewriter was originally purchased, and expert testimony that the exhibit #UUU typewriter had been tampered with in a way not consistent with professional repair work. These points and others have lead some Hiss defenders to theorize that the Baltimore Documents were forgeries, created by first remanufacturing a typewriter to match existing samples of typed papers from the Hiss household, then using this typewriter to type the Baltimore Documents. According to this theory, the remanufactured typewriter was then planted where Hiss's defense investigators would find it, and it became trial exhibit #UUU.

At the time of the trials, few people suspected that such "forgery by typewriter" was possible, and an FBI agent testified that it could not be done. In fact, during World War II, J. Edgar Hoover arranged for his own FBI agents to be trained at a British intelligence base where one of the specialties was the remanufacture of typewriters for document forgery. In a 1959 document obtained through an unrelated Freedom of Information Act application, J. Edgar Hoover noted that "To alter a typewriter to match a known model would require a large amount of typewriter specimens and weeks of laboratory work."

Other authors have counter-argued that if the Baltimore Documents were forgeries, it would be an unnecessary risk to arrange for the remanufactured typewriter to be found and introduced as evidence at the trials. The link between the Hiss's typewriter and the Baltimore Documents was testified to on the basis of matching the documents to old typing samples, so the actual typewriter wasn't needed. Professor Irving Younger wrote, "To leave the counterfeit Woodstock lying about for the defense to pick up and examine would serve only to expose the whole scheme to the risk of discovery--and for no reason."

In a 1976 memoir, former White House counsel John Dean alleged that President Nixon's chief counsel Charles Colson told him that Nixon had admitted in a conversation that HUAC had in fact fabricated a typewriter, saying, "We built one on the Hiss case." However, Colson subsequently denied the statement.

Soviet archives

After the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, Alger Hiss petitioned General Dimitry Antonovich Volkogonov, who had become President Yeltsin's military advisor and the overseer of all the Soviet intelligence archives, to request the release of any Soviet files on the Hiss case. Interestingly, both former President Nixon and the director of his presidential library, John H. Taylor, wrote a similar letter, though the actual contents of those letters are not publicly available.

Russian archivists and researchers responded by reviewing their files, and in the fall of 1992 reported back that they had found no evidence that Alger Hiss had ever engaged in espionage for the Soviet Union or any evidence that Hiss was a member of the Communist Party. However, Volkogonov subsequently revealed that he had spent only two days on his search and had mainly relied on the word of KGB archivists. He stated, "What I saw gave me no basis to claim a full clarification. John Lowenthal pushed me to say things of which I was not fully convinced."

General-Lieutenant Vitaly Pavlov, who ran Soviet intelligence work in North America in the late 1930s and early 1940s, provided some corroboration of Volkogonov in his memoirs, stating that Hiss never worked for the USSR as one of his agents.

In 2004, General Julius Kobyakov, a retired Russian intelligence official, revealed that he had been the person who actually searched the files for Volkogonov. According to Kobyakov, his research revealed that there was no indication that Alger Hiss had been either a paid or unpaid agent of the Soviet Union only "after careful study" of KGB archives and "after querying sister services" (military intelligence).

In 2007, further testimonial of the absence of Hiss's name in Soviet archives was given by Russian researcher Svetlana A. Chervonnaya, who had been conducting research since the early 1990s.

Noel Field

In 1992, records were found in Hungarian Interior Ministry archives that mentioned Alger Hiss as a Communist spy. These were transcripts of interrogations of Noel Field that had taken place between 1949 and 1954. Field was an American who had spied for the Soviet Union, but had been arrested while traveling through Eastern Europe on charges that he was actually spying for American intelligence. During his five-year imprisonment in Hungary he referred to Hiss as a fellow Communist and spy four times, including relating the following: "Around the summer of 1935 Alger Hiss tried to induce me to do service for the Soviets. I was indiscreet enough to tell him he had come too late."

Field was released by the Hungarian secret police in 1954 but remained in Hungary until his death in 1970. Upon his release, he wrote a letter to the Communist Party's Central Committee in Moscow complaining that he had been tortured in prison and that this had caused him to "confess more and more lies as truth." Hiss's defenders argue that Field's implication of Hiss may have been one of these lies and that Field was trying to show his veracity as a Communist by connecting his activities to the well-known Hiss. In 1957, Field wrote a letter to Hiss in which he expressed his belief in Hiss's innocence and spoke of personal knowledge of Hede Massing's "outrageous lie" when she testified at Hiss's second trial.

Venona and "ALES"

In 1995, the existence of the so-called Venona project was revealed. This project had resulted in the decryption or partial decryption of thousands of telegrams sent to the Soviet Union from its U.S. operatives in the years 1942 to 1945. FBI Special Agent Robert Lamphere identified the Soviet spy known by the codename "ALES" in some decoded cables as "probably Alger Hiss".>(today NSA historian Robert Benson maintains “probably” should be dropped from the NSA’s identification of ALES). In 1997, the bipartisan Moynihan Commission on Government Secrecy, chaired by Democratic Senator Daniel Patrick Moynihan, stated in its findings: "The complicity of Alger Hiss of the State Department seems settled. As does that of Harry Dexter White of the Treasury Department." In his 1998 book Secrecy: The American Experience, Moynihan wrote, "Belief in the guilt or innocence of Alger Hiss became a defining issue in American intellectual life. Parts of the American government had conclusive evidence of his guilt, but they never told." In addition to Moynihan, the identification of Hiss as ALES has been accepted by many other authors, including Allen Weinstein, John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr.

The Venona transcript with the most relevance to the Hiss case is #1822, sent March 30, 1945, from the Soviet's Washington station chief to Moscow. This transcript indicates that ALES attended the Yalta conference and then went to Moscow. Hiss attended Yalta and then traveled to Moscow in his capacity as adviser to Secretary of State Edward Stettinius.

However, the Venona evidence on Alger Hiss is disputed by some. John Lowenthal, a Hiss lawyer and longtime supporter, has challenged the Hiss-ALES identification in Venona #1822 by the following:

  • ALES was said to be the leader of a small group of espionage agents; Hiss was accused of having acted alone, aside from his wife as a typist and Chambers as courier.
  • ALES was a GRU (military intelligence) agent who obtained military intelligence, and only rarely provided State Department material; Alger Hiss in his trial was accused of obtaining only non-military information and the papers used against him were non-military State Department materials that he allegedly produced on a regular basis.
  • Even if Hiss was the spy he was accused of being, it's unlikely he would have continued being so after 1938 as ALES did, because in that year Hiss would have become too great a risk for any Soviet agency to use. In that year, Whittaker Chambers broke with the Communist Party and then went into hiding, telling his Communist Party colleagues he would denounce them if they did not follow suit. At this point therefore, ALES's cover would be in extreme jeopardy if he were Alger Hiss.
  • Other recent information places ALES in Mexico City at the same time when Hiss was known to be in Washington.

Lowenthal also suggested an interpretation of the transcript that differs from Lamphere's reading. Lowenthal's reading does not put ALES at the Yalta conference at all, but rather refers to the presence at Yalta of Andrey Vyshinsky, the Soviet deputy foreign minister. According to Lowenthal, the entire point of paragraph 6 of Venona #1822—that the GRU asked Vyshinsky to get in touch with ALES to convey thanks from the GRU for a job well done—would have been unnecessary if ALES had actually been in Moscow, because the GRU could have easily contacted ALES with no need of Vyshinsky. Others, notably Eduard Mark, dispute Lowenthal's analysis on this point. In the opinion of intelligence historian John R. Schindler, the original Russian text of Venona #1822 (released in 2005), removes some of the ambiguity present in the English translation and confirms ALES's presence at Yalta. Schindler concludes "the identification of ALES as Alger Hiss, made by the U.S. Government more than a half-century ago, seems exceptionally solid based on the evidence now available; message 1822 is only one piece of that evidence, yet a compelling one."

Also in rebuttal to Lowenthal, John Earl Haynes and Harvey Klehr noted the following:

  • None of the evidence presented at the Hiss trial precludes the possibility that Hiss had been an espionage agent after 1938 or that he had only passed State Department documents after 1938.
  • Chambers's charges were not seriously investigated until after the revelations made by the defection of Elizabeth Bentley in 1945, so Hiss and the Soviets could in theory have considered it an acceptable risk for him continue espionage work, even after Chambers's defection.
  • Vyshinsky was not in the U.S. between Yalta and the time of the Venona message and the message is from the Washington KGB station reporting on a talk with Ales in the U.S., thus making Lowenthal's analysis impossible.

There is one Venona cable, #1579, that includes the name "Hiss." It consists mostly of fragments of a 1943 message from the GRU chief in New York to GRU headquarters in Moscow. The reference reads: ". . . from the State Department by name of HISS . . ." The name "Hiss" was not translated by the Venona cryptanalysts, but rather appeared just that way in the original—"Spelled out in the Latin alphabet" according to footnote iv. In the cable, "Hiss" goes without a first name, so it could possibly refer to either Alger or Donald, since both were at the State Department in 1943. For the GRU to name Hiss openly, not by a codename, would be radically unorthodox for Soviet espionage protocols if he was, indeed, a spy. Both the NSA and the FBI have insisted that once a codename was assigned it was used to the exclusion of the real name.

At an April 2007 symposium, authors Kai Bird and Svetlana Chervonnaya presented evidence that a U.S. diplomat named Wilder Foote was the best match to ALES, based on the movements of all the officials present at the U.S.-Soviet Yalta conference. In particular, Bird and Chervonnaya noted that Foote had been in Mexico City at a time when a Soviet cable placed ALES there, whereas Hiss had left Mexico several days earlier (see above). Other authors have disputed the likelihood that Foote was ALES, saying that the author of the Soviet cable could have been mistaken in stating that ALES was still in Mexico City.

National Security Agency analysts have gone on record asserting that ALES could only have been Alger Hiss.

"The Haunted Wood"

In 1999, historian Allen Weinstein and KGB agent turned journalist Alexander Vassiliev released The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America--The Stalin Era. The book is largely based on exclusive access to several Soviet intelligence files that Weinstein and Vassiliev gained by paying ex-KGB agents a total reported to be in excess of 1 million dollars (provided by their publisher, Random House). Haunted Wood includes a long narrative of the Hiss-Chambers case, and affirms Hiss's guilt. However, in a footnote it is stated "we have been able to further clarify Alger Hiss's role as a Soviet agent only through his occasional appearance in NKVD/NKGB archives." These "occasional appearances" in turn, are based on what author Athan Theoharis calls "a series of questionable speculative conclusions:" that Hiss had the codename "ALES," that KGB agents sometimes forgot his codename when they sent reports to Moscow, and that Hiss was sometimes also identified by the codename "Lawyer."

Haunted Wood has also come under criticism over the fact that the memos on which it is based were discovered in Soviet Archives on a lucrative "cash-for-documents" access rights basis. All other historians were denied access to the same archives, making it impossible for others to check Weinstein's and Vassiliev's work.

Allen Weinstein has also been accused of misquoting, misrepresenting, or misconstruing some of his interview subjects for his earlier book Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case. One of his sources, Samuel Krieger, sued Weinstein for libel in 1979. Weinstein settled out of court by issuing a public apology and paying Krieger an undisclosed sum for his error.

David Lowenthal furthermore discovered that a considerable amount of scholarly friction existed between the two coauthors. Vassiliev stated, "I never saw a document where Hiss would be called ALES or ALES may be called Hiss. I made a point of that to Allen." Weinstein was "sloppy almost every time he quoted documents relating to Alger Hiss." However, in a 2002 episode of PBS's NOVA, Vassiliev said, "The Rosenbergs, Theodore Hall and Alger Hiss did spy for the Soviets, and I saw their real names in the documents, their code names, a lot of documents about that. How you judge them is up to you. To me, they're heroes."

Oleg Gordievsky

In 1985, Oleg Gordievsky, a high ranking KGB agent, defected to the West. In his 1990 book Gordievsky reported attending a lecture before a KGB audience in which Iskhak Abdulovich Akhmerov identified Hiss, apparently as one of the Soviet Union's U.S. agents during World War II.

Although his reminiscence of the Akhmerov lecture remains unchallenged, Gordievsky went further and claimed that Hiss had the codename identity of "ALES". This at first appeared to be an independent corroboration of the codename, as it appeared before the Venona cables were revealed to the public. However, it was later revealed that Gordievsky's source for the ALES identity was an article by journalist Thomas Powell, who had seen National Security Agency documents on Venona years before their release.

Footnotes

  1. http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9367140/Alger-Hiss
  2. http://www.wargs.com/other/hiss.html
  3. Linder, Doug (2003). "The Pumpkin Papers and Their Role in the Alger Hiss Case". Famous Trials: The Alger Hiss Trials - 1949-50. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
  4. James Barros, "Alger Hiss and Harry Dexter White: The Canadian Connection." Orbis vol. 21 no. 3 (Fall 1977), pp. 593-605
  5. Cook, Fred J. (1958). The Unfinished Story of Alger Hiss. William Morrow Company. pp. pp 69-73. ISBN 1-131-85352-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  6. Weyl, Nathaniel (1950). Treason: The Story of Disloyalty and Betrayal in American History. Public Affairs Press. ISBN 1-296-19279-2.
  7. Cook, Fred J. (1958). The Unfinished Story of Alger Hiss. William Morrow Company. pp. pp 75-81. ISBN 1-131-85352-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  8. Weyl, Nathaniel (2003). Encounters With Communism. Xlibris Corporation. pp. pp 30-31, 114–118. ISBN 1-4134-0747-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  9. Lowenthal, John (June 26, 1976). "What the FBI Knew But Hid from Hiss and the Court". The Nation: p. 776. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  10. "The Serial Number". The Alger Hiss Story; The Woodstock Typewriter. Retrieved 2007-03-05.
  11. "Horace W. Schmahl". The Alger Hiss Story. Retrieved 2007-04-10.
  12. Stone, I.F. (April 1, 1976). The New York Times. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  13. "Justice Department releases copies of the "Pumpkin Papers"". The New York Times. August 1, 1975.
  14. "Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court orders Alger Hiss reinstated to Massachusetts Bar". The New York Times. August 6, 1975.
  15. "The Experts: Evelyn Ehrlich". The Alger Hiss Story; The Woodstock Typewriter. Retrieved 2007-03-05.
  16. "The Experts: Elizabeth McCarthy". The Alger Hiss Story; The Woodstock Typewriter. Retrieved 2007-03-05.
  17. Cook, Fred J. (1958). The Unfinished Story of Alger Hiss. William Morrow Company. pp. pp 147-151. ISBN 1-131-85352-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  18. Cook, Fred J. (1958). The Unfinished Story of Alger Hiss. William Morrow Company. pp. pg. 156. ISBN 1-131-85352-0. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  19. Bradford, Russell R. and Bradford, Ralph B. (1992). "A History of Forgery by Typewriter". An Introduction to Handwriting Examination and Identification. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  20. Green, Gil (November 10, 1984). "Forgery by Typewriter". The Nation.
  21. Weinstein, Allen (1997). Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case. Random House. pp. pg. 574. ISBN 0-679-77338-X. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  22. Dean, John (1976). Blind Ambition: The White House Years. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0671224387.
  23. Summers, Anthony (2000). The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon. Penguin-Putnam Inc. ISBN 0-670-87151-6.
  24. Tanenhaus, Sam (April 1993). "Hiss: guilty as charged". Commentary. V. 95.
  25. "Russians Say Hiss Was Not a Soviet Spy". The Alger Hiss Story; Venona and the Russian Files. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
  26. "Distorted Reflections". The Alger Hiss Story; Venona and the Russian Files. Retrieved 2007-04-13.
  27. Pyle, Richard (5 April 2007). "Researcher adds to Alger Hiss debate". Associated Press..
  28. Tanenhaus, Sam (April 1993). "Hiss: guilty as charged". Commentary. V. 95.
  29. Klingsberg, Ethan (November 8, 1993). "Case Closed on Alger Hiss?". The Nation.
  30. Lowenthal, John. "Venona and Alger Hiss" (PDF). pp. note #76.
  31. ^ "Venona transcript #1822, with commentary by Douglas Linder". The Trials of Alger Hiss: A Commentary.
  32. "Appendix A; SECRECY; A Brief Account of the American Experience" (PDF). Report Of The Commission On Protecting And Reducing Government Secrecy. United States Government Printing Office. 1997. pp. A-37.
  33. Moynihan, Daniel Patrick (1998). Secrecy: The American Experience. Yale University Press. pp. pg. 146. ISBN 0-300-08079-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  34. Weinstein, Allen (1997). Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case. Random House. ISBN 0-679-77338-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  35. Haynes, John Earl and Klehr, Harvey (2000). Venona: Decoding Soviet Espionage in America. Yale University Press. pp. pg. 170. ISBN 0-300-08462-5. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  36. Linder, Doug (2003). "The Venona Files and the Alger Hiss Case". Famous Trials: The Alger Hiss Trials - 1949-50. Retrieved 2006-09-13.
  37. Lowenthal, David (May, 2005). "Did Allen Weinstein Get the Alger Hiss Story Wrong?". History News Network. Retrieved 2006-09-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  38. Also spelled "Vyshinskii," "Vishinsky" and "Vyshinski"
  39. Lowenthal, John (Autumn 2000). "Venona and Alger Hiss". The Alger Hiss Story.
  40. Mark, Eduard (September 2003). "Who was 'Venona's' 'ALES'? cryptanalysis and the Hiss case". Intelligence and National Security. 18 (3): pp. 45-72. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  41. Schindler, John R. (27 October 2005). "Hiss in VENONA: The Continuing Controversy".
  42. Haynes, John Earl and Klehr, Harvey (2003). In Denial: Historians, Communism, and Espionage. Encounter Books. pp. pp. 158-163. ISBN ISBN 1-893554-72-4. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  43. Lowenthal, John (Autumn 2000). "Venona and Alger Hiss" (PDF). Intelligence and National Security. pp. pg. 119. Retrieved 2006-09-13. {{cite web}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  44. "Researcher adds to Alger Hiss debate". The New York Times. April 5, 2007.
  45. Flanders, Jefferson (April, 2007). "A comparison: Alger Hiss, Wilder Foote, and ALES". {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  46. Haynes, John Earl (14 April 2007). "Ales: Hiss, Foote, Stettinius?".
  47. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/venona/dece_hiss.html
  48. Weinstein, Allen and Vassiliev, Alexander (1999). The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America--The Stalin Era. Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75536-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  49. The Haunted Wood. 1999. pp. pg. 44. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  50. Theoharis, Athan (2002). Chasing Spies: How the FBI Failed in Counter-Intelligence But Promoted the Politics of McCarthyism in the Cold War Years. Ivan R. Dee. pp. pg. 20. ISBN 1-56663-420-2. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)
  51. Summers, Anthony (2000). The Arrogance of Power: The Secret World of Richard Nixon. Diane Publishing Co. pp. pp 76-77. ISBN 0-14-026078-1. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  52. Navasky, Victor (November 3, 1997). "Allen Weinstein's Docudrama". The Nation. Retrieved 2006-10-03. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  53. Lowenthal, David (May, 2005). "Did Allen Weinstein Get the Alger Hiss Story Wrong?". History News Network. Retrieved 2006-09-13. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  54. "Secrets, Lies, and Atomic Spies". PBS/NOVA. 2002. Retrieved 2006-09-13. {{cite web}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  55. Andrew, Christopher and Gordievsky, Oleg (1990). KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev. Harpercollins. pp. pg. 287. ISBN 0060166053. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) The text in which Gordievsky relates personal knowledge regarding Hiss reads: "Gordievsky attended a lecture in the Lubyanka given by Akhmerov, by then silver-haired and in his sixties. Akhmerov mentioned Hiss only briefly. The main subject of his lecture was the man he identified as the most important of all Soviet wartime agents in the United States: Harry Hopkins," Although Harry Hopkins is described here as an "agent", elsewhere he is described as a source who was "never a conscious Soviet agent." See Lehmann-Haupt, Christopher (March 15, 2007). "Books of The Times; Prying the K.G.B.'s Secrets Loose". The New York Times.
  56. Romerstein, Herbert and Breindel, Eric (2001). The Venona Secrets, Exposing Soviet Espionage and America's Traitors. Regnery Publishing, Inc. pp. pg. 212. ISBN 0895262258. {{cite book}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  57. Weinstein, Allen (1997). "(Letter to the Editors)". New York Review of Books. 44 (20).

References and further reading

  • Cooke, Alistair (1950). A Generation on Trial: USA v. Alger Hiss. Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-23373-X.
  • Hiss, Alger (1957). In the Court of Public Opinion. Harper Collins. ISBN 0-06-090293-0.
  • Theoharis, Athan (Editor) (1982). Beyond the Hiss Case: The FBI, Congress, and the Cold War. Temple University Press. ISBN 0-87722-241-X. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  • Hiss, Alger (1988). Recollections of a Life. Little Brown & Co. ISBN 1559700246.
  • Weinstein, Allen (1997). Perjury: The Hiss-Chambers Case. Random House. ISBN 0-679-77338-X. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Tanenhaus, Sam (1998). Whittaker Chambers: A Biography. Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75145-9. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  • Weinstein, Allen and Vassiliev, Alexander (1999). The Haunted Wood: Soviet Espionage in America--The Stalin Era. Modern Library. ISBN 0-375-75536-5. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  • Hiss, Tony (1999). The View from Alger's Window: A Son's Memoir. Alfred E. Knopf. ISBN 0-375-40127-X.
  • Coulter, Ann (2003). Treason: Liberal Treachery from the Cold War to the War on Terrorism. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 1-4000-5032-4.
  • Swan, Patrick (Editor) (2003). Alger Hiss, Whittaker Chambers, and the Schism in the American Soul. ISI Books. ISBN 1-882926-91-9. {{cite book}}: |first= has generic name (help)
  • White, G. Edward (2005). Alger Hiss's Looking-Glass Wars: The Covert Life of a Soviet Spy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-518255-3.

External links

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