Veganism

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File:VeganSociety.png

The logo of the world's first Vegan Society, registered in 1944.

Veganism (also strict or pure vegetarianism) is a philosophy and lifestyle that seeks to exclude the use of animals for food, clothing, or any other purpose. Vegans do not use or consume animal products of any kind. The most popular reasons for becoming a vegan are concerns for animal rights, the environment, or human health, and spiritual or religious concerns. Of particular concern are the practices involved in factory farming and animal testing, and the intensive use of land and other resources required for animal farming.

Various polls have reported vegans to be between 0.2% and 1.3% of the U.S. population, and between 0.25% and 0.4% of the UK population. The Times estimated in 2005 that there were 250,000 vegans in Britain.

Vegetarian diets, which are similar to vegan diets, have been credited with lowering the risk of colon cancer, heart attack, high blood cholesterol, high blood pressure, prostate cancer, and stroke. Because a poorly managed vegan diet can lead to reduced levels of calcium, iodine, and vitamins B₁₂ and D, vegans are encouraged to take dietary supplements.

Definition

The word vegan, usually pronounced , was originally derived from "vegetarian" in 1944 when Elsie Shrigley and Donald Watson, frustrated that the term "vegetarianism" had come to include the eating of dairy products, founded the UK Vegan Society. They combined the first three and last two letters of vegetarian to form "vegan," which they saw as "the beginning and end of vegetarian." The British Vegan Society defines veganism in this way:

he word "veganism" denotes a philosophy and way of living which seeks to exclude — as far as is possible and practical — all forms of exploitation of, and cruelty to, animals for food, clothing or any other purpose; and by extension, promotes the development and use of animal-free alternatives for the benefit of humans, animals and the environment. In dietary terms it denotes the practice of dispensing with all products derived wholly or partly from animals.

Other vegan societies use similar definitions. Although these definitions exclude all animal products as non-vegan, some vegans consider the use of insect products such as honey or silk to be acceptable.

Demographics

The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (June 2007) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

United States

A 2002 Time/CNN poll found that 4% of American adults consider themselves vegetarians, and 5% of self-described vegetarians consider themselves vegans. A 2006 poll conducted by Harris Interactive in the United States listed specific foods and asked respondents to indicate which items they never eat, rather than asking respondents to self-identify. The results found that, of the 1,000 adults polled, 1.4% never eat meat, poultry, fish, seafood, dairy products, or eggs. They were, in other words, vegan (except for possibly honey) in their eating habits. The survey found that about 1.4% of men and 1.3% of women have vegan diets.

United Kingdom

In 2002, the UK Food Standards Agency reported that 5% of respondents self-identified as vegetarian or vegan. Though 29% of that 5% said they avoided "all animal products", only 5% reported avoiding dairy products. In 2005, The Times estimated there were 250,000 vegans in Britain.

Animal products

Main article: Animal product

The term "animal product" in a vegan context refers to material derived from animals for human use. Notable animal products include meat, poultry, seafood, eggs, dairy products, honey, fur, leather, wool, and silk. Common animal by-products include gelatin, lanolin, rennet, whey, beeswax and shellac.

Animal ingredients can be found in countless products and are used in the production of—though not always present in the final form of—many more; many of these ingredients are esoteric, also have non-animal sources, and especially in non-food products may not even be identified. Although some vegans attempt to avoid all these ingredients, Vegan Outreach argues that "it can be prohibitively expensive and time-consuming to shun every minor or hidden animal-derived ingredient," and therefore that doing what is "best for preventing suffering" is more important than identifying and excluding every animal ingredient.

Ethical concerns

Sows at an intensive pig farm. Opposition to factory farming is one of the most common ethical reasons given for veganism.

Vegan organizations maintain that animals have certain rights, and as such is not ethical for humans to use animals in ways that infringe those rights. Practices seen as cruel to animals include factory farming, animal testing, and groups which display animals for entertainment, such as circuses, rodeos, and zoos.

Legal theorist Gary L. Francione argues that sentience in animals is sufficient to grant them moral consideration and that adopting veganism should be regarded as the "baseline" action taken by people concerned with animal rights. Utilitarian philosopher Peter Singer argues that the suffering of sentient animals is relevant to ethical decisions, and advocates both veganism and improved conditions for farm animals as a means to reduce animal suffering.

William Jarvis has questioned the validity of the ethical claims put forward by vegans, stating that "the belief that all life is sacred can lead to absurdities such as allowing mosquitoes to spread malaria, or vipers to run loose on one's premises." However, vegans like Peter Singer follow veganism for other reasons. Singer, who does not believe that all animal life is sacred, advocates veganism for utilitarian reasons, stating that the benefit caused by a good taste for the human who consumes animal products is more than negated by the pain felt by the beings who are consumed.

Steven Davis, professor of animal science at Oregon State University, argues that the number of wild animals killed in crop production is greater than those killed in ruminant-pasture production. Whenever a tractor goes through a field to plow, disc, cultivate, apply fertilizer and/or pesticide, and harvest, animals are killed. Davis gives a small sampling of U.S. field animals that are threatened by intensive crop production, including many mammals, birds and amphibians. In one small example, an alfalfa harvest caused a 50% decline in the gray-tailed vole population. According to Davis, if all the cropland in the U. S. were used to produce crops for a vegan diet, it is estimated that around 1.8 billion animals would be killed annually.

Gaverick Matheny, a Ph.D. candidate in agricultural economics at the University of Maryland, counters that Davis' reasoning contains several major flaws, including distorting the notion of "harm" to animals, and miscalculating the number of animal deaths based on areas of land rather than per consumer. Matheny concludes that vegetarianism actually kills fewer animals, promotes better treatment of animals, and allows more animals to exist.

Cuisine

Health

Main article: Vegan nutrition

Benefits

Certain widespread diets (such as the standard American diet, which is high in fat and low in fiber and green vegetables) are detrimental to health, and a vegan diet thus represents an improvement, in part because vegan diets are often high enough in fruit and vegetables to meet or exceed the recommended fruit and vegetable intakes. Conversely, studies in Japan found that increased consumption of some animal products coincided with a decrease in risk for some forms of cerebrovascular disease and stroke mortality.

Some vegans feel additional health benefits are gained by eating food with minimal levels of substances such as growth hormones and antibiotics, which are often given to intensively farmed animals in countries where this is legal. Because they are similar to human hormones, growth-promoters such as anabolic steroids that are used in cattle farming in America may affect fetal and childhood development. Due to this uncertainty, the use of such growth promoters in illegal in the European community.

Benefits of vegetarian diets are sometimes also valid for strict vegan diets: according to the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada, diets that avoid meat tend to have lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol, and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fiber, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants, such as vitamins C and E, and phytochemicals. People who avoid meat are reported to have lower body mass indices than those following the average Canadian diet; from this follows lower death rates from ischemic heart disease; lower blood cholesterol levels; lower blood pressure; and lower rates of hypertension, type 2 diabetes, and prostate and colon cancer.

The American Dietetic Association states that well-planned vegan diets can also be appropriate for life cycles requiring high nutritional intake such as pregnancy, lactation, childhood, and adolescence.

A pilot study at Georgetown University on 2005 suggested that a vegan diet can reduce blood cholesterol in people with type 2 diabetes, as well as significantly reduce the complications of this disease.

Vegan athletes compete in a variety of sports, including powerlifting, bodybuilding, martial arts, and long distance running. Multiple Olympic gold medallist Carl Lewis has stated that he became vegan in 1990 and achieved his "best year of track competition" in 1991 when he ate a vegan diet.

Precautions

Specific nutrients

The American Dietetic Association has said that "appropriately planned vegetarian diets are healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provide health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases." Poorly planned vegan diets, however, increase the risk of deficiency in nutrients such as vitamin B₁₂, vitamin D, calcium, iodine and omega-3 fatty acids. These deficiencies have potential consequences, including anemia, rickets and cretinism in children, and osteomalacia and hyperthyroidism in adults.

Vitamin B₁₂

The Vegan Society and Vegan Outreach, and others, recommend that vegans either consistently eat foods fortified with B₁₂ or take a B₁₂ supplement. Deficiencies in Vitamin B₁₂, a bacterial product that cannot be reliably found in plant foods, can have serious health consequences, including anemia and neurodegenerative disease. The body can reabsorb B₁₂ from the bile, which means it may take up to five years to exhaust the body's reserves of the vitamin. However it is still possible to suffer from mild deficiency and if a person has not eaten more than the daily needed amount of B₁₂ over a long period before becoming a vegan then they may not have built up any significant store of the vitamin.

In a 2002 laboratory study, more of the strict vegan participants' B₁₂ and iron levels were compromised than those of lacto- or lacto-ovo-vegetarian participants. As of 2005, no food in Europe or the U.S. had been tested for lowering MMA levels, the gold standard for determining B₁₂ activity.

A study, published in the June 1 2007 issue of Cancer Research, suggests that higher dietary intakes of B₆, B₉, and B₁₂ are associated with reduced rates of pancreatic cancer for people at or below normal body weight.

Calcium

A 5.2 year study, released in February 2007 by Oxford, showed that vegans have an increased risk of bone fractures over both meat eaters and vegetarians, likely due to lower dietary calcium intake, and that vegans consuming more than the UK's estimated average requirements for calcium of 525 mg/day had risk of bone fractures similar to other groups.

It is recommended that vegans eat three servings per day of a high calcium food, such as fortified soy milk, and take a calcium supplement as necessary; although recent research suggests that dietary calcium is better than supplements, at least for women. Fortified soy milk can also substitute for milk's common role as a source of vitamin D (another nutrient important for bone formation, commonly added to commercial milk). Adequate amounts of vitamin D may also be obtained by spending 15 to 30 minutes every few days in the sunlight, but this may be difficult for vegans in areas with low levels of sunlight during winter.

Iodine

Naturally dietary iodine is available from marine foods, but adequate marine foods are not always available to or consumed by people worldwide. To ensure sufficient iodine is consumed by their citizens, iodized salt is common public policy in most countries (including China, India, and the United States). There is, however, a risk of iodine deficiency for vegans in countries which instead use animal-based methods of iodine supplementation – in Britain and Ireland the major source of iodine is the milk produced by cattle, which are given iodine-enriched feed. Iodine deficiency can cause hypothyroidism leading to tiredness, skin problems, tingling sensations and elevated cholesterol. Because of this, the British Vegan Society recommends iodine supplementation, noting that iodine can be readily obtained from kelp. They suggest that one or two kelp tablets a week is sufficient.

Pregnancies and children

According to the US National Institute of Health, "with appropriate food choices, vegan diets can be adequate for children at all ages." The American Dietetic Association also considers well-planned vegan diets "appropriate for all stages of the life cycle, including pregnancy and lactation," but recommends that vegan mothers supplement for iron, vitamin D, and vitamin B₁₂. In the last decade, a strict vegan diet has been associated with cases of severe infant malnutrition, and more rarely, with fatalities. The resulting criminal convictions, ranging from "cruelty to children" to felony murder, of parents found culpable in these cases has raised some significant criticism of a vegan diet for children. Vitamin B₁₂ deficiency in lactating vegetarian mothers has been linked to deficiencies and neurological disorders in their children. Some research suggests that the essential omega-3 fatty acid α-linolenic acid and its derivatives should also be supplemented in pregnant and lactating vegan mothers, since they are very low in most vegan diets, and the metabolically related docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is essential to the developing visual system. Vegan diet has also been associated with low birth weight. A 2006 study found that vegan mothers are five times less likely to have twins than those who eat animal products.

Eating disorders

The American Dietetic Association found that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders than in the general adolescent population, and that professionals should be aware of adolescents who limit the food choices and exhibit symptoms of eating disorders. The ADA indicates that the evidence suggests that the adoption of a vegetarian diet does not lead to eating disorders, but "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder." Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.

Resources and the environment

Main article: Environmental vegetarianism

People who adopt veganism for environmental reasons do so on the basis that veganism consumes less resources and causes less environmental damage than an animal-based diet. Animal agriculture is linked to climate change, water pollution, land degredation, and a decline in biodiversity. Additionally, an animal-based diet uses more land, water, and energy than a vegan diet.

A 2006 study by Gidon Eshel and Pamela Martin, assistant professors of geophysics at the University of Chicago, found that a person switching from the average American diet to a vegan diet would reduce CO₂ emissions by 1,485 kg per year.

The United Nations released a report in November 2006 linking animal agriculture to environmental damage. The report, titled "Livestock’s Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options," concludes that the livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to our most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global. It is one of the largest sources of greenhouse gases - responsible for 18% of the world’s greenhouse gas emissions as measured in CO₂ equivalents. By comparison, all transportation emits 13.5% of the CO₂. It produces 65% of human-related nitrous oxide (which has 296 times the global warming potential of CO₂) and 37% of all human-induced methane (which is 23 times as warming as CO₂).

The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis argues that while most meat production in industrialized countries uses inefficient grain feeding methods through intensive farming, meat production is not invariably a poor use of land, especially in countries like China and Brazil. Since a proportion of all grain crops produced are not suitable for human consumption, they can be fed to animals to turn into meat, thus improving efficiency. Further, greenhouse gas emissions are not limited to animal husbandry; for instance, in many countries where rice is the main cereal crop, rice cultivation is responsible for most of the methane emissions.

Similar diets and lifestyles

Notes

^ "Memorandum of Association of the Vegan Society" (PDF). About Us. Vegan Society. 1979-11-20. p. 1. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ "Criteria for Vegan food". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-17.
^ "Time/CNN Poll: Do you consider yourself a vegetarian?". Time Magazine. 2002-07-07. Retrieved 2006-10-30. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
^ "Types and quantities of food consumed: Vegetarian/vegan" (PDF). National Diet & Nutrition Survey: Adults aged 19 to 64, Volume 1 2002. Food Standards Agency. pp. 11, 23. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
^ "How Many Adults Are Vegetarian?". Vegetarian Journal. Vegetarian Resource Group. Retrieved 2007-03-18.
^ "Donald Watson". Times Online. Times Newspapers Ltd. 2005-11-16. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
For stroke and heart attack, see the British Medical Journal, September 28, 1996.
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Vegan Action: Vegan FAQ's - Is honey vegan?
^ "Vegan FAQs". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-11. Is refined sugar vegan? It depends on how you define 'vegan.' Refined sugars do not contain any animal products, and so by an ingredients-based definition of vegan, refined sugar is vegan. ... However, if one accepts a process-based definition of vegan, then many other familiar products would also not be considered vegan. For instance, steel and vulcanized rubber are produced using animal fats and, in many areas, groundwater and surface water is filtered through bone charcoal filters.
"IVU FAQ: Drinks". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-11.
"Information Sheet: Alcohol". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-03-11. The use of animal derived products in the production of alcoholic beverages is fairly widespread not because no alternatives exist, but because they always have been used and there is little demand from the consumer for an alternative. ... The main appearance of animal derived products is in the fining or clearing process, though others may be used as colorants or anti-foaming agents.
"IVU FAQ: Ingredients". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
"IVU FAQ: Animal Derived Ingredient List". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
"IVU FAQ: Maybe Animal Derived". International Vegetarian Union FAQ. International Vegetarian Union. 2006-08-03. Retrieved 2007-03-10.
"On Living With Compassion". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10. Our desire to oppose and help end cruelty to animals can help guide our choices, as well as provide a simple, easy-to-understand explanation of our actions. The question isn't, "Is this vegan?" but, "What is best for preventing suffering?"
"On Living With Compassion (Old version)". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-03-10. We believe that framing veganism as the avoidance of a specific list of "bad" ingredients is not the best way to achieve results. When looked at closely, any ingredients-based definition of vegan collapses into inconsistencies. This is why we stress that the essence of being vegan is working to end cruelty to animals.
^ "Factory Farms". Why Vegan. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
"About Veganism: For the Animals". Vegan Action. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Veganism emerges as the lifestyle most consistent with the philosophy that animals are not ours to use.
"PETA's History: Compassion in Action". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. PETA operates under the simple principle that animals are not ours to eat, wear, experiment on, or use for entertainment.
"About Mercy for Animals". Mercy for Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Mercy For Animals is a 501(c)(3) non-profit animal advocacy organization that believes non-human animals are irreplaceable individuals with morally significant interests and hence rights, including the right to live free of unnecessary suffering.
"Cruelty to Animals: Mechanized Madness". GoVeg.com. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
"Exploitation". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. The vast majority of these animals will have spent their brief lives in the cramped, distressing conditions of the factory farm. Their close confinement and the overworking of their bodies will have led to increased susceptibility to injury and disease. They will have been reared on an unnatural diet designed to increase productivity and many will have undergone various painful and traumatic procedures.
"Testing". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Every year, millions of animals are subjected to the most horrifically painful experiments just so people can have a new brand of shampoo or a differently scented perfume.
"Circuses: Three Rings of Abuse". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Colorful pageantry disguises the fact that animals used in circuses are captives who are forced, under threat of punishment, to perform confusing, uncomfortable, repetitious, and often-painful acts.
"Rodeo: Cruelty for a Buck". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In reality, rodeos are nothing more than manipulative displays of human domination over animals, thinly disguised as entertainment.
"Animal Rights Uncompromised: Zoos". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. PETA opposes zoos because zoo cages and cramped enclosures deprive animals of their most basic needs. The zoo community regards the animals it keeps as commodities, and animals are regularly bought, sold, borrowed, and traded without any regard for established relationships.
Francione, Gary (2006-12-27). "Mission Statement". Animal Rights: The Abolitionist Approach. Retrieved 2007-05-29. This site also seeks to make clear that the moral baseline of an animal rights movement is veganism.
Clyne, Catherine (2006). "Singer Says". Satya. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you read the book, it does make clear that going vegan is a good solution to a lot of the ethical problems. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Gilson, Dave (2006-05-03). "Chew the Right Thing". Mother Jones. The Foundation for National Progress. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In 1975 he published Animal Liberation, a pioneering defense of the rights of animals that concluded that veganism is the most ethically justifiable diet.
Broudy, Oliver (2006-05-08). "The practical ethicist". Salon.com. Salon Media Group, Inc. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If you can be vegetarian or vegan that's ideal. If you can buy organic and vegan that's better still, and organic and fair trade and vegan, better still, but if that gets too difficult or too complicated, just ask yourself, Does this product come from intensive animal agriculture?
Why I Am Not a Vegetarian By Dr. William T. Jarvis
Singer, Peter (1979). "The case against using animals for food is at its strongest when animals are made to lead miserable lives so that their flesh can be made available to humans at the lowest possible cost. ... In order to have meat on the table at a price that people can afford, our society tolerates methods of meat production that confine sentient animals in cramped, unsuitable conditions for the entire duration of their lives. ... To avoid speciesism we must stop these practices." Practical Ethics, Cambridge 1979. Chapter 3.
Davis, S.L. (2001). "The least harm principle suggests that humans should eat beef, lamb, dairy, not a vegan diet." EurSafe 2001. Food Safety, Food Quality and Food Ethics. Proceedings of the Third Congress of the European Society for Agricultural and Food Ethics. pp 449-450.
Davis S.L. (2003) "The least harm principle may require that humans consume a diet containing large herbivores, not a vegan diet". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. (16)4. pp. 387-394.
Gaverick Matheny (2003). "Least harm: a defense of vegetarianism from Steven Davis's omnivorous proposal". Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics. 16: 505–511. doi:10.1023/A:1026354906892.
^ "Vegetarian starter kit", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine, posted on vegsource.com.
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"History of Tempeh". tempeh.info. Retrieved 2007-02-18.
^ "Vegan proteins". BBC Food. BBC. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ "Baking without eggs, milk and buttah". Post Punk Kitchen. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
"Vegan Substitution for Egg Whites". Ochef.com. Food News Service. Retrieved 2007-02-23. Q. What is a vegan substitute for egg whites? A. And the mystery ingredient is… flax seed.
Bryanna Clark Grogan. "Vegan Meat Analogs, Dairy Substitutes, and Egg Alternatives". Bryanna's Vegan Feast. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
Segelken, Roger (2001-06-28). "China Study II: Switch to Western diet may bring Western-type diseases". Cornell Chronicle. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
"China-Cornell-Oxford Project On Nutrition, Environment and Health at Cornell University". Division of Nutritional Sciences. Cornell University. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
"Possible protective effect of milk, meat and fish for cerebrovascular disease mortality in Japan". Japan Epidemiological Association. 1999-08-09. Retrieved 2006-09-15. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
"Bovine Growth Hormone". EJnet.org. Retrieved 2006-09-15.
[Swan SH, Liu F, Overstreet JW, Brazil C, Skakkebaek NE (2007). "Semen quality of fertile US males in relation to their mothers' beef consumption during pregnancy". Hum. Reprod. 22 (6): 1497–502. doi:10.1093/humrep/dem068. PMID 17392290.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Andersson AM, Skakkebaek NE (1999). "Exposure to exogenous estrogens in food: possible impact on human development and health". Eur. J. Endocrinol. 140 (6): 477–85. PMID 10366402.
Aksglaede L, Juul A, Leffers H, Skakkebaek NE, Andersson AM (2006). "The sensitivity of the child to sex steroids: possible impact of exogenous estrogens". Hum. Reprod. Update. 12 (4): 341–9. doi:10.1093/humupd/dml018. PMID 16672247.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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Nicholson, Andrew. "Diabetes: Can a Vegan Diet Reverse Diabetes?", Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine.
"OrganicAthlete's Pro-Activist Team". Retrieved 2006-10-30.
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Lewis, Carl. "Carl Lewis on Being Vegan". Introduction to Very Vegetarian, by Jannequin Bennett. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
"Vegan Health: Vitamin B12". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2006-07-26. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ "Vegan Health: Bone Health". veganhealth.org. Vegan Outreach. 2007-01-09. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ P Appleby (2007). "Comparative fracture risk in vegetarians and nonvegetarians in EPIC-Oxford". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1602659. PMID 17299475. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
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^ "What every vegan should know about vitamin B12". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Vitamin B12, whether in supplements, fortified foods, or animal products, comes from micro-organisms.
^ "Vegans and Vitamin D". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
^ Steven Walsh. "Nutrition: Iodine". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ "Healthy choices on a vegan diet". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-02-14.
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^ Jack Norris, RD (2003-04-18). "Staying a Healthy Vegan". Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-02-22. There are no reliable, unfortified plant sources of vitamin B12; therefore fortified foods and/or supplements are necessary for the optimal health of vegans.
"Vitamin B12 Information Sheet". Vegetarian Society. Retrieved 2007-02-22. any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.
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Retsinas, Greg (April 5, 2003). "Couple Guilty Of Assault In Vegan Case". New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
"Vegan Parents Get Prison In Infant's Death". KSBW 8. May 9, 2007. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
Planck, Nina (May 21, 2007). "Death by Veganism". New York Times. Arthur Ochs Sulzberger, Jr. Retrieved 2007-07-17. {{cite news}}: Check |first= value (help)
Nipps, Emily (June 25, 2007). "Custody battle over quints questions vegan lifestyle". St. Petersburg Times. Retrieved 2007-07-17.
Kuhne T, Bubl R, Baumgartner R (1991). "Maternal vegan diet causing a serious infantile neurological disorder due to vitamin B12 deficiency". Eur J Pediatr. 150 (3): 205–8. PMID 2044594.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Weiss R, Fogelman Y, Bennett M (2004). "Severe vitamin B12 deficiency in an infant associated with a maternal deficiency and a strict vegetarian diet". J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 26 (4): 270–1. PMID 15087959.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Sanders TA (1999). "Essential fatty acid requirements of vegetarians in pregnancy, lactation, and infancy". Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 70 (3 Suppl): 555S–559S. PMID 10479231.
Sanders TA (1999). "The nutritional adequacy of plant-based diets". The Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 58 (2): 265–9. PMID 10466165.
Steinman, G. (2006). "Mechanisms of twinning: VII. Effect of diet and heredity on the human twinning rate" (PDF, fee required). Journal of Reproductive Medicine. 51 (5): 405–10. PMID 16779988. Retrieved 2007-02-25. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Dedyna, Katherine (2004-01-30). "Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder?". Victoria Times Colonist. CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc. Retrieved 2006-10-30.
O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ (1987). "Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases". Med J Aust. 147 (11–12): 540–2. PMID 3696039.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Davis, Brenda. (2002). Becoming Vegan: The Complete Guide to Adopting a Healthy Plant-Based Diet. p.224. ISBN 1-57067-103-6
Brown LR (1981). "World food resources and population: the narrowing margin". Population bulletin. 36 (3): 1–44. PMID 12263473.
"About Veganism: For the Environment". Vegan Action. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Animal agriculture takes a devastating toll on the earth. It is an inefficient way of producing food, since feed for farm animals requires land, water, fertilizer, and other resources that could otherwise have been used directly for producing human food.
^ "Environmental Destruction". Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
Mosier AR, Duxbury JM, Freney JR, Heinemeyer O, Minami K and Johnson DE, (1998). "Mitigating Agricultural Emissions of Methane". Climatic Change. 40 (1): 39–80. doi:10.1023/A:1005338731269.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^ "Factory Farming: Mechanized Madness". People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals. Retrieved 2007-05-29. Factory farms are harmful to the environment as well. Each day, factory farms produce billions of pounds of manure, which ends up in lakes, rivers, and drinking water. ... Of all the agricultural land in the U.S., 80 percent is used to raise animals for food and grow the grain to feed them—that's almost half the total land mass of the lower 48 states. ... it takes more than 1,250 gallons of water to produce a pound of cow flesh, whereas it takes about 235 gallons of water to grow 1 pound of wheat.
"Environment: Land". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. In all, the raising of livestock takes up more than two-thirds of agricultural land, and one third of the total land area.
"Environment: Water". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. If we put all of these figures together, we find that whilst wheat provides us with an average 27.5 kcal for each litre of water used, beef provides only 0.76 kcal per litre. This means that - based on the data presented to show that other figures were "overstated" - beef still requires 36 times as much water per calorie as wheat.
"Environment: Energy". Vegan Society. Retrieved 2007-05-29. A plant-based vegan diet uses substantially less energy than a diet based on animal products. This energy is virtually all derived from fossil fuels, making meat and dairy consumption a contributing factor in air pollution, acidification, oil spills, habitat destruction and global warming.
"Resources". Why Vegan?. Vegan Outreach. Retrieved 2007-05-29.
Eshel, Gidon (2006). "Diet, Energy and Global Warming" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-05-29. We conclude that a person consuming a mixed diet with the mean American caloric content and composition causes the emissions of 1,485 kg CO2-equivalent above the emissions associated with consuming the same number of calories, but from plant sources. Far from trivial, nationally this difference amounts to over 6% of the total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
"Livestock's Long Shadow–Environmental Issues and Options". Retrieved 2007-01-04.
NSW Department of Primary Industries - Feeding frosted cereal grain to ruminants
How harmful is animal protein consumption for the environment?
Methane Emission from Rice Fields - Wetland rice fields may make a major contribution to global warming by Heinz-Ulrich Neue
Karma Lekshe Tsomo (2006), Into the Jaws of Yama, Lord of Death: Buddhism, Bioethics, and Death, SUNY Press, ISBN 0791468313
"The role of religion in protecting the Earth (Jainism and the environment: precursors of modern ecology)". Forum 2004: Parliament of the World's Religions. Universal Forum of Cultures. 2004. Retrieved 2007-02-22. Naresh Jain, Co-Chair of the Interfaith Committee of Jainism Associations in North America, said that the difference lies in Jainists' strict approach to the vegetarian (or vegan) diet. "Jainism is the only religion that materialises the ideal of non-violence through the vegan diet" he said.
Jyoti Mehta. "Veganism and Hinduism". The Young Indian Vegetarians. Retrieved 2007-02-22.
Campbell, M (1982). "Rastafarianism and the vegans syndrome". British Medical Journal. 285: 1617–1618. 1617–1618. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
Fraser, Gary (1999). "Associations between diet and cancer, ischemic heart disease, and all-cause mortality in non-Hispanic white California Seventh-day Adventists". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3). 532S-538S. Retrieved 2007-02-22. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

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