Neuro-linguistic programming

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Neuro-linguistic programming
Topics Methods Representational systems Covert hypnosis
Developers Richard Bandler John Grinder
Practitioners Connirae Andreas Steve Andreas Charles Faulkner Fazal Inayat-Khan Paul McKenna Tony Robbins
Organisations Association for Neuro Linguistic Programming
v t e

This article is about NLP, the interpersonal communications and psychotherapy model. It should not be confused with the interdisciplinary study of neurolinguistics, which is covered in a separate article. There is also a disambiguation page for other uses of the acronym.

Neuro-linguistic programming (NLP) is an interpersonal communication model and an alternative approach to psychotherapy based on the subjective study of language, communication and personal change.

It was co-created by Richard Bandler and linguist John Grinder in the 1970s. The initial focus was pragmatic, modeling three successful psychotherapists, Fritz Perls (Gestalt Therapy), Virginia Satir (Family Systems Therapy), and eventually Milton H. Erickson (Clinical Hypnosis), with the aim of discovering what made these individuals more successful than their peers.

Today the predominant patterns of NLP, the application of those patterns, and many variants of NLP are found in seminars, workshops, books and audio programs in the form of exercises and principles intended to influence change in self and others. There is a great deal of difference between the depth and breadth of training and standards, and some disagreement between those in the field about which patterns are and are not "NLP". While the field of NLP is loosely spread and resistant to a single comprehensive definition, there are some common principles and presuppositions shared by its proponents. Perhaps most generally, NLP aims to increase behavioral flexibility, (i.e. choice) by the manipulation of subjective experience, (either by a practitioner/trainer, or by self-application). Some of the main ideas, often copied or developed from counseling or psychotherapy fields, include:

The way an individual thinks about a problem or desired outcome in terms of visual, auditory and kinesthetic representations, has an effect on the way he or she will deal with problems and choose a certain course of action.
When communicating with someone, rather than just listening to and responding to what a person is saying, NLP aims to also respond to the structure of verbal communication and non-verbal cues.
The NLP meta model questioning is intended to clarify what has been left out or distorted in communication
The NLP Milton model uses non-specific and metaphoric language allowing the listener to fill in the gaps, making their own meaning from what is being said, finding their own solutions and inner resources, challenging and reframing irrational beliefs.
The actual state someone is in when setting a goal or choosing a course of action is also considered important. A number of techniques in NLP aim to enhance states by anchoring resourceful states associated with personal experience or model states by imitating others.

In the early 1980s, NLP was heralded as an important advance in psychotherapy and counseling, and it attracted some interest from researchers and clinicians. In the mid 1980's research reviews in The Journal of Counseling Psychology and by the National Research Council (1988; NRC) committee found little empirical basis for the claims about preferred representational systems (PRS) or assumptions of NLP, marking a decrease in research interest. While the title Neuro-linguistic programming implies a basis in neurology, computer science, and lingusitics and it is often to marketed as a new science, skeptics contend it is simply a pseudoscientific or New Age form of psychotherapy. Few practitioners have presented their clinical data for peer-review and most have had little interest in empirical validation. NLP remains supported by its practitioners in the psychotherapy field and has influenced other forms of brief and eclectic interventions. Its models and tools have been used widely outside of psychotherapy in business communication, management training, teaching, executive coaching and motivational seminars.

Concepts and methods

Main article: Methods of neuro-linguistic programming

Modeling exceptional people

Main article: Modeling (NLP)

The co-creators of NLP, Bandler and Grinder, started by observing and replicating the communication patterns of three successful psychotherapists, Fritz Perls, Virginia Satir, and Milton Erickson. Fritz Perls was one of the founders of Gestalt therapy. Virginia Satir was the leading developer of family systems therapy. Milton Erickson, an American psychiatrist specializing in medical hypnosis and family therapy, and founding member of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis. Bandler and Grinder participated in collaborative studies with Perls, Satir and Erickson, and reviewed many hours of audio and video material. The founders of NLP state that in their experience, experts in human communication all have a similar approach, and it is this approach (and not the technical skills) which distinguishes them, and which can be learned:

When you watch and listen to Virginia Satir and Milton Erickson do therapy, they apparently could not be more different...People also report that the experiences of being with them are profoundly different. However, if you examine their behavior and the essential key patterns and sequences of what they do, they are similar.... The same was true of Fritz Perls... when he was operating in what I consider a powerful and effective way, he was using the same sequences of patterns that you will find in their work.

In their studies, Bandler and Grinder aimed to identify the key thinking, communication and behavioral strategies that set these therapists apart from their peers. They held that often an expert is not aware of what he or she is doing (behaviourally), which makes them successful and that in traditional learning, the learner's pre-existing filters (beliefs, past experiences, expectations, etc.) can get in the way of learning new things. To avoid this, NLP modeling methods intend to suspend these filters during the initial "unconscious uptake" phase of learning.

The patterns of change, communication and language perceived and adapted by Bandler and Grinder during the early 1970s formed the basic models of NLP. First, the meta model was based on the consistent types/categories of questions that Fritz Perls and Virginia Satir would ask their clients. Second, the Milton model was based on the hypnotic communication patterns of Milton H. Erickson. Another aspect of modeling is understanding the patterns of one's own behaviors in order to 'model' the more successful parts of oneself. Proponents maintain that NLP Modeling is not confined to therapy but can be applied to the full spectrum of human learning.

Analyzing this further, Grinder and Bandler stated that there were a few common traits such people – whether top therapists, top executives or top salespeople – all seemed to share:

Everything they did in their work, was pro-active (rather than reactive), directed moment to moment by well-formed outcomes rather than formalized fixed beliefs
They were exceedingly flexible in approach and refused to be tied down to using their skills in any one fixed way of thinking or working
They were extremely aware moment by moment, of the non-verbal feedback (unconscious communication and metaphor) they were getting, and responded to it - usually in kind rather than by analyzing it
They enjoyed the challenges of difficult ("resistant") clients, seeing them as a chance to learn rather than an intractable "problem"
They respected the client as someone doing the best they knew how (rather than judging them as "broken" or "working")
They had certain common skills and things they were aware of and noticed, intuitively "wired in"
They worked with great precision, purpose, and skill
They kept trying many many different things until they learned enough about the structure holding a problem in place to change it

They summarized their findings:

"You need only three things to be an absolutely exquisite communicator. We have found that there are three major patterns in the behavior of every therapeutic wizard we've talked to — and executives, and salespeople. The first one is to know what outcome you want. The second is that you need flexibility in your behavior. You need to be able to generate lots and lots of different behaviors to find out what responses you get. The third is you need to have enough sensory experience to notice when you get the responses that you want..."

Meta model

Main article: Meta model (NLP)

Bandler and Grinder believed that the words and phrases people use reveal unconscious limitations and faulty thinking. The meta model questions seek to recover unspoken information, challenge generalization and other distorted messages that involve restrictive thinking and beliefs. The intent is to help someone develop new choice in thinking and behavior. By listening to and carefully responding to the distortions (generalizations and deletions) in a client's sentences, the practitioner seeks to respond to the form of the sentence rather than the content itself.

For example, if someone says, "everyone must love me," the message is overly general as it does not specify any particular person or group of people. Examples of meta model responses include, "which people, specifically?", "all people?", and questions to define the criteria that would be acceptable for this person to know when he or she is experiencing the state of "love". Words such as "must" also indicate necessity or lack of choice. A meta-model response might be, "what would happen if they did/didn't?" Practitioners choose when to respond and when not to, using softeners and linkage phrases from the Milton model to maintain rapport.

The meta model was developed by Bandler and Grinder (1973-1975) based on their observation and imitation of Fritz Perls and Virginia Satir together with Grinder's work with transformational grammar.

Milton model

Main article: Milton model

The Milton model is a way of communicating based on the hypnotic language patterns of Milton Erickson. It has been described as "a way of using language to induce and maintain trance in order to contact the hidden resources of our personality". The Milton model has three primary aspects: First, to assist in building and maintaining rapport with the client. Second, to overload and distract the conscious mind so that unconscious communication can be cultivated. Third, to allow for interpretation in the words offered to the client. Communicating with metaphor was also an essential part of Milton's methods.

Representational systems

Main article: Representational systems (NLP)

NLP teaches that the way ones sensory representation systems are organised (their visual, auditory, and kinesthetic representations) forms the conscious representation of experience. When people are thinking they form internal images and sounds, together with internal feelings. For example, if they are thinking of what their home looks like they are using the visual sensory mode.

In NLP, this notion is extended to the performance of any task - such as making conversation, talking about a problem, reading a book, kicking a ball or riding a horse. Representations consisting of images, sounds, feelings (and possibly smell and taste) are constantly being formed and activated. It is claimed that the organisation of these representations has an unavoidable impact on performance. It is also claimed that knowledge of the underlying representations, as revealed through the use of spoken predicates, can assist someone in gaining rapport and influence in conversation.

Some of these ideas appear to have been imported from gestalt therapy shortly after its creation.

Preferred representational systems

Originally NLP taught that most people had an internal preferred representational system (PRS) and preferred to process information primarily in one sensory modality. The practitioner could ascertain this from external cues such as the direction of eye movements, posture, breathing, voice tone and the use of sensory-based predicates. If a person repeatedly used predicates such as "I can see a bright future for myself", the words "see" and "bright" would be considered visual predicates. In contrast "I can feel that we will be comfortable" would be considered primarily kinesthetic because of the predicates "feel" and "comfortable". These verbal cues could also be coupled with posture changes, skin color or breathing shifts. The theory was that the practitioner by matching and working within the preferred representational system could achieve better communication with the client and hence swifter and more effective results. Many trainings and standard works still teach PRS whilst other proponents such as Richard Bandler, have de-emphasized the existance and relevance of PRS and instead emphasize working within all representational systems. In particular, New Code emphasizes individual calibration and sensory acuity, precluding such a rigidly specified model as the one described above. Responding directly to sensory experience requires an immediacy which respects the importance of context. Grinder has stated that a representational system diagnosis lasts about 30 seconds.

Although there is some research that supports the notion that eye movements can indicate visual and auditory (but not kinesthetic) components of thought in that moment,the existence of a preferred representational system ascertainable from external cues (an important part of original NLP theory) was discounted by research in the 1980s.

Submodalities

Main article: Submodalities (NLP)

Submodalities are the fine details of sensory modalities. In the late 1970s, the use of visual imagery was common in goal setting, sports psychology and meditation. Not only did Bandler and Grinder begin to explore imagery in all sensory modalities (Visual, Auditory, Kinesthetic, Gustatory and Olfactory), they also were interested in the qualities/properties of internal representations, the "submodalities". They claimed that if increasing the brightness, colour or location of an internal imagery increases the intensity of the current state then one can use this to increase the intensity of "dull" states. This idea was extended to the other sensory modalities. Bandler and Grinder believed that this is how people codify their memory and subjective experience. They systematically applied submodality manipulation to the other modalities, such as volume and location of internal sound, texture and movement of internal sensations. Submodalities forms the basis of many NLP interventions in therapeutic or personal development setting

Principles and presuppositions

Main article: Principles of NLP

There are slightly different versions of what practitioners consider to be the basic principles or presuppositions of NLP, but there is a fairly high degree of universal agreement on those most central to NLP. These are generalizations used as working guides.

The map is not the territory
Life and mind are systemic processes
Behind every behavior there is a positive intention. Even a seemingly negative thought or behavior has a positive function at some level or in some other context. (presupposition)
There is no failure, only feedback. (presupposition)
The meaning of the communication is the response it produces, not the intended communication. (presupposition)
One cannot not communicate: Every behaviour is a kind of communication. Because behaviour does not have a counterpart (there is no anti-behaviour), it is not possible not to communicate.
Choice is better than no choice. An idea from cybernetics that holds the most flexible element in a system will have the most influence or choice in that system.
People already have all the internal resources they need to succeed. (presupposition)
Multiple descriptions are better than one

Techniques

Anchoring

Main article: Anchoring (NLP)

Anchoring is the process by which a particular state or response is associated (anchored) with a unique anchor. An anchor is most often a gesture, voice tone or touch but could be any unique visual, auditory, kinesthetic, olfactory or gustatory stimulus. It is claimed that by recalling past resourceful states one can anchor those states to make them available in new situations. A psychotherapist might anchor positive states like calmness and relaxation, or confidence in the treatment of phobias and anxiety, such as in public speaking. Proponents state anchors are capable of being formed and reinforced by repeated stimuli, and thus are analogous to classical conditioning.

Anchoring appears to have been imported into NLP from family systems therapy as part of the 'model' of Virginia Satir.

Swish

Swish is a process of disrupting a pattern of thought from one that leads to an unwanted behavior to one that leads to a desired behavior. This involves visualizing a 'cue' that is part of the unwanted behavior, such as a smoker's hand with a cigarette moving towards the face, and then 'switching' to a visualization of the desired outcome, such as a healthy looking person, energetic and fit. Sounds may also be imagined or recalled to enhance the exercise. Swish is one of the techniques that involves the manipulation of submodalities.

Reframing

Main article: Reframing (NLP)

In NLP, reframing is the process whereby an element of communication is presented so as to shift an individual's perception of the meanings or "frames" attributed to words, phrases and events. By changing the way the event is perceived "responses and behaviors will also change. Reframing with language allows you to see the world in a different way and this changes the meaning. Reframing is the basis of jokes, myths, legends, fairy tales and most creative ways of thinking." The concept was common to a number of therapies prior to NLP. For example, it appeared in the approaches of Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls and Milton Erickson and in strategic therapy of Paul Watzlawick. There are examples in children's literature. Pollyanna would play The Glad Game whenever she felt down about life, to remind herself of the things that she could do, and not worry about the things she couldn't.

Six step reframe

An example of reframing is found in the six-step reframe which involves distinguishing between an underlying intention and the consequent behaviors for the purpose of achieving the intention by different and more successful behaviors. It is based on the notion that there is a positive intention behind all behaviors, but that the behaviors themselves may be unwanted or counterproductive in other ways. NLP uses this staged process to identify the intention and create alternative choices to satisfy that intention.

Ecology and congruency

Ecology in NLP deals with the relationship between a client and their natural, social and created environments and how a proposed goal or change might relate to their relationships and their environment. It is a frame within which the desired outcome is checked against the consequences in the client's life and relationships. Like gestalt therapy a goal of NLP is to help the client choose goals and make changes that achieve a sense of personal congruency and integrity with personal and other aspects of the client's life.

Parts integration

Parts Integration creates a metaphor of different aspects (parts) of ourselves which are in conflict due to different goals, perceptions and beliefs. 'Parts integration' is the process of 'identifying' these parts and negotiating (or working) with each of these parts separately & together, with a goal of resolving internal conflict. Successful parts negotiation occurs by listening to and providing opportunities to meet the needs of each part and adequately addressing each part's interests so that they are each satisfied with the desired outcome. It often involves negotiating with the conflicting parts of a person to achieve resolution. Parts integration appears to be modeled on 'parts' from family therapy and has similarities to ego-state therapy in psychoanalysis in that it seeks to resolve conflicts that constitute a "family of self" within a single individual.

Psychological research and reviews

Main articles: NLP and science and List of studies on Neuro-linguistic programming

Journal of Counseling Psychology

In 1984, Sharpley, researching for the Journal of Counselling Psychology, undertook a literature review of 15 studies on the existence and effectiveness of preferred representational systems (PRS), an important underlying principle of NLP, and found "little research evidence supporting its usefulness as an effective counseling tool" and no reproducible support for preferred representational systems and predicate matching. Einspruch and Forman (1985) broadly agreed with Sharpley (1984) but disputed the conclusions, identifying a failure to address methodological errors in the research reviewed. They stated that "NLP is far more complex than presumed by researchers, and thus, the data are not true evaluations of NLP" adding that NLP is difficult to test under the traditional counseling psychology framework. Moreover, they argued the research lacked a necessary understanding of pattern recognition as part of advanced NLP training, there was inadequate control of context, an unfamiliarity with NLP as an approach to therapy, inadequate definitions of rapport and numerous logical mistakes in the research methodology. Sharpley (1987) responded to Einspruch and Forman (1985) with a review of a further 7 studies on the same basic tenets (totalling 44 including those cited by Einspruch and Forman). This second review included Elich et al (1985), a study that found no support for the proposed relationship between eye movements, spoken predicates, and internal imagery. Elich et al stated that "NLP has achieved something akin to cult status when it may be nothing more than a psychological fad" (p625).

Sharpley stated "Data collected in 44 studies clearly indicate an overwhelming finding that (a) the PRS cannot be reliably assessed; (b) when it is assessed, the PRS is not consistent over time; therefore, (c) it is not even certain that the PRS exists; and (d) matching clients' or other persons' PRS does not appear to assist counselors reliably in any clearly demonstrated manner."and "there are conclusive data from the research on NLP, and the conclusion is that the principles and procedures of NLP have failed to be supported by those data"... "certainly research data do not support the rather extreme claims that proponents of NLP have made as to the validity of its principles or the novelty of its procedures." Also that NLP may be untestable stating "perhaps NLP principles are not amenable to research evaluation. This does not necessarily reduce NLP to worthlessness for counseling practice. Rather, it puts NLP in the same category as psychoanalysis, that is, with principles not easily demonstrated in laboratory settings but, nevertheless, strongly supported by clinicians in the field."

Sharpley states that a number of NLP techniques are worthwhile or beneficial in counselling, citing predicate matching, mirroring clients behaviors, moving sensory modalities, reframing, anchoring and changing history, but that none of these techniques originated within NLP, saying "NLP may be seen as a partial compendium of rather than as an original contribution to counseling practice and, thereby, has a value distinct from the lack of research data supporting the underlying principles that Bandler and Grinder posited to present NLP as a new and magical theory". He concluded that as a counselling tool, the techniques and underlying theory unique to NLP, were both empirically unvalidated and unsupported but that "if NLP is presented as a theory-less set of procedures gathered from many approaches to counselling, then it may serve as a reference role for therapists who wish to supplement their counselling practice by what may be novel techniques to them."

Other reviews of evidence for preferred representational systems

A study by Buckner et al (1987), (after Sharpley), using trained NLP practitioners found support for the claim that specific eye movement patterns existed for visual and auditory (but not kinesthetic) components of thought, and that trained observers could reliably identify them. However, the study did not cover whether such patterns indicated a preferred representational system. They also made suggestions for further research. Krugman et al (1985) tested claims for a 'one-session' treatment of performance anxiety against another method and a control group and found no support for claims of a 'one-session' effective treatment.They argued for further research into NLP amongst other treatments that have "achieved popularity in the absence of data supporting their utility".

National Research Council evaluation

In 1988 at the request of the US Army, the National Research Council evaluated several highly marketed "New age" human performance enhancement technologies. Druckman, one of the evaluators, said that "we found little if any evidence to support NLP’s assumptions or that it is effective as a strategy for social influence." Although it found little evidence for NLP in the existing research, it noted that the body of research had largely not tested NLP beyond the assumptions related to Preferred Representation Systems (matching the body of research referred to in the Journal of Counselling Psychology).

Druckman also said "we were impressed with the modeling approach used to develop the technique. The technique was developed from careful observations of the way three master psychotherapists conducted their sessions, emphasizing imitation of verbal and nonverbal behaviors (Druckman & Swets, 1988, Chapter 8). This then led the committee to take up the topic of expert modeling in the second phase of its work." However, the second phase on expert modeling, inspired by NLP, was done outside the field of NLP.

Decrease in research interest

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These mid-80s reviews marked the decline in research interest in NLP generally, and particular in matching sensory predicates and its use in counselor-client relationship in counseling psychology..

There has been some ongoing research by both NLP practitioners and psychologists, including outcome-based research and research of therapies which share NLP processes, but there are no thorough reviews or meta-analyses of NLP's effectiveness and NLP was dropped from the experimental psychology research stream. Similarly in the field of psychotherapy it is stated that the "original interest in NLP turned to disillusionment after the research and now it is rarely even mentioned in psychotherapy". Devilly (2005) states that "at the time of its introduction, NLP was heralded as a breakthrough in therapy and advertisements for training workshops, videos and books began to appears in trade magazines. The workshops provided certification... However, controlled studies shed such a poor light on the practice, and those promoting the intervention made such extreme and changeable claims that researchers began to question the wisdom of researching the area further and even suggested that NLP was an untestable theory"..."NLP is no longer as prevalent as it was in the 1970s or 1980s, but is still practiced in small pockets of the human resource community. The science has come and gone, yet the belief still remains".

Lack of scientific validation

Proponents of NLP often claim it is predicated on a scientific understanding and the title of Neuro-linguistic programming implies a basis in science. Psychologists Margaret Singer and Janja Lalich (1996) in Crazy Therapies say that despite lack of support from scientific research, marketers continues "to call the originators 'scientists' and to use such terms a 'science', 'technology' and 'hi-tech psychology' in describing NLP". Cognitive neuroscience researcher Michael C Corballis (1999) says that "NLP is a thoroughly fake title, designed to give the impression of scientific respectability."

Evidence-based researcher and clinician Scott Lilienfeld says that "largely untested treatments comprise a major proportion—in some cases a majority—of the interventions delivered by mental health professionals." Lilienfeld argues that NLP, as a New Age psychotherapy, is one of many hundreds of variations of psychotherapy that have not been subject to rigorous empirical validation. Lilienfeld and colleagues believe that randomized controlled studies are the only way to verify whether or not psychotherapeutic treatments are effective. It is argued that the proof of the validity of new therapeutic practices in clinical psychology fall on the proponents of these practices. There has been no peer-reviewed empirical research on VK/D (Visual/Kinesthetic dissociation), an intervention derived from NLP which has been been taught alongside other Power therapies (eg. EMDR, TFT).

Psycholinguist Willem Levelt (in Dutch skeptic magazine Skepter) acknowledges that the main point of NLP was pragmatic, but doubts the basis in neurology, linguistics and computer programming implied in the title of Neuro-linguistic programming. He argues that most modern neurologists are informed about the brain based on neuro-imaging and clinical data but in NLP there has been little interest in this neuroscience or clinical research. He asserts that the experimental evidence does not exist to support the hypothesis that eye movements can reveal preferred representational system. He also claims there are philosophical conflicts between the NLP meta model, the philosophy of David Hume (sensory experience is combined to form representations) and William Wundt (which Levelt considers close to "the study of subjective experience", a main idea in NLP).

Uses

Psychotherapy

Main article: Therapeutic use of Neuro-linguistic programming

The two main therapeutic uses of NLP are use as an adjunct by therapists practsing in other therapeutic disciplines, or as a specific therapy called Neurolinguistic Psychotherapy (NLPt).

Persuasion

Main article: Persuasion uses of NLP

Many of the techniques used in NLP aim to effect persuasion and influence change in belief in others. The use of language patterns, trance, therapeutic metaphor, anchoring, reframing and the like. These have been used for both beneficial (therapeutic) and manipulative purposes (sales or personal gain). NLP makes no bones that its techniques are claimed to be potent ones, the question then is, how have they been used in practice?

Popular culture and media

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NLP, when mentioned in popular culture, often refers to its more 'spectacular' claims and potentials. When NLP is mentioned in the context of "the power of the mind", claims such as "you can achieve anything" are common - this is seen by scientists as a wild and unsubstantiated claim. (Note that NLP does not teach that this claim is true, but it does teach that believing it is useful - that if a subject believes they are capable of more it will enable a greater range of possibilities for them.)

NLP also teaches that people are unconsciously influenced when making decisions, and that they can give indications in their muscle and facial movements of their thought processes. The public perception of NLP, like hypnosis, is often mixed (sometimes deliberately) with public preconceptions and interest in the unknown.

Mind reading and magic

In 2003, English mentalist Derren Brown performed stunts and magical tricks on British television. In one stunt Derren played Russian roulette with an audience member. The trick involved Derren firing a loaded gun at himself, and he would only be safe if he didn't choose the chamber that the audience member had placed the bullet into. Derren has stated that NLP spurred his interest in developing skills in reading non-verbal signals (see also cold reading) and indirect suggestion - and some people believed that he was using this rather than mere tricks, and that he "may be an expert in NLP". Glenn Wilson, a psychologist, doubted Brown's mind reading and influence capability, saying it was a magic trick and Derren probably used stooges who acted as if they were from the audience. "Nobody has that much mind control over others or the capability of reading them that they'd risk a live bullet." Derren later revealed that this was in fact a trick, and local police at one show confirmed that no live ammunition was involved.

Self Development and Anthony Robbins

Self development products are often promoted as using or being based on NLP. Personal development guru Anthony Robbins claims to have based many of his strategies and techniques on a synthesis of NLP and psychology. His first popular book titled, "Unlimited Power" featured NLP inspired ideas and techniques. It was a bestseller in the American self-help market.

Other television features

In 2005, celebrity hypnotist and television personality Paul McKenna was shown applying NLP and other techniques on his Sky One show, 'I Can Change Your Life' to assist people with phobias, such as agoraphobia and addictions to gambling and shopping. In 2006, another Sky One programme, 'I Can Make You Thin', featured Richard Bandler and used NLP among other techniques to help people lose weight.

History and development

Main article: History of neuro-linguistic programming

1970s: Founding and early development

File:Frogsintoprinces.jpg

The first popular book on NLP, Frogs into Princes, first published in 1979, was based on transcripts of its co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, presenting at seminars live.

NLP was co-founded and developed jointly by Richard Bandler and then UCSC assistant professor of linguistics John Grinder, under the tutelage of noted anthropologist Gregory Bateson, at the University of California, Santa Cruz, during the 1970s. At that time the Californian human potential seminars were developing into a viable industry. Gregory Bateson (see Esalen Institute) was influenced by Alfred Korzybski, particularly his ideas about human modeling and that 'the map is not the territory'. These ideas were adopted by Bandler and Grinder.

From 1972, the co-founders of NLP had an interest in the exceptional communications skills of gestalt therapist Fritz Perls, family therapist Virginia Satir and founding president of the American Society for Clinical Hypnosis, Milton H. Erickson. Subsequently Structure of Magic Series (1975) and Patterns of Milton H. Erickson (1976, 1977) were published using those therapists as models. In the late 1970s, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, Judith DeLozier, Robert Dilts, and David Gordon worked with the co-founders and separately to contribute to the development of NLP.

1980s: New developments and scientific assessment

In the 1980s, shortly after publishing Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1 with Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier, Grinder and Bandler fell out. Amidst acrimony and intellectual property lawsuits, NLP started to be developed haphazardly by many individuals. Given the multiplicity of developers and trainers, there was to be no single definitive system of NLP.

Since the early 1980s, John Grinder collaborated with various people to develop a form of NLP called the New Code of NLP which attempted to restore a whole mind-body systemic approach to NLP

Richard Bandler also published new processes based on submodalities and Ericksonian hypnosis.

Anthony Robbins who taught NLP in the late 1970s, mass marketed various motivational products incorporating aspects of NLP (renamed as Neuro Associative Conditioning).

In the late 1980s, Sharpley's (1984, 1987) research reviews in experimental counseling psychology and by the United States National Research Council gave NLP an overall negative assessment marking a decrease in NLP research interest.

1990s: Controversy, division, and marketing

In July of 1996 after many years of legal controversy, Bandler filed a lawsuit against John Grinder et al, claiming retrospective sole ownership of NLP, and the sole right to use the term under trademark. Contemporaneous with Bandler's suits in the Supreme Court of the United States, Tony Clarkson (a UK practitioner) successfully asked the UK High Court to revoke Bandler's UK registered trademark of "NLP", in order to clarify legally that 'NLP' was a generic term rather than intellectual property.

Despite the NLP community being splintered, most NLP material acknowledges the early work of the co-founders, Bandler and Grinder, and the development group that surrounded them in the 1970s.

2000s: Legal settlement and government regulation

In 2001, the law suits were settled with Bandler and Grinder agreeing to be known as co-founders of NLP. Since 1978, a 20 day NLP practitioner certification program had been in existence for training therapists to apply NLP as an adjunct to their professional qualifications. As NLP evolved, and the applications began to be extended beyond therapy - new ways of training were developed and the course structures and design changed. Course lengths and style vary from institute to institute. In the 1990s, following attempts to put NLP on a more formally regulated footing in the UK, other governments began certifying NLP courses and providers, such as in Australia for example, where a graduate certificatein Neuro-linguistic programming is accredited under the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF).However, NLP continues to be an open field of training with no 'official' best practice. With different authors, individual trainers and practitioners having developed their own methods, concepts and labels, often branding them as "NLP", the training standards and quality differ greatly. In Europe, the European NLP therapy associationhas been promoting their training in line with European therapy standards. The multiplicity and general lack of controls has led to difficulty discerning the comparative level of competence, skill and attitude in different NLP trainings. According to Peter Schütz the length of training in Europe varies from 2-3 days for the hobbyist, to 35-40 days over at least nine months to achieve a professional level of competence.

Classifying NLP

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Associations with science

NLP's association with science has been complex and controversial. Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier claim "NLP is rooted in the synthesis of three areas of modern science: neurophysiology, linguistics and cybernetics (computer programming)." Grinder & Bostic St Clair (2001) make suggestions about what needs to be done next to "improve the practice and take its rightful place as a scientifically based endeavor with its precise focus on one of the extremes of human behavior: excellence and the high performers who actually do it." They ask those interested to work with researchers in cognitive linguistics and neuroscience to begin to improve the relationship with those fields.

In the introduction to The Structure of Magic Series, Gregory Bateson stated that " create the beginnings of an appropriate theoretical base for the describing of human interaction. have succeeded in making linguistics into a base for theory and simultaneously into a tool for therapy."

Epistemology

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For some NLP is really a way of thinking, an epistemology. It deals with how people organize mental representation of knowledge, values and belief. In this view, the nature of the real world is not a concern of NLP, to know whether an NLP model works is based on individual feedback -- "The meaning of communication is the response you get." Grinder and Delozier (1987) purported that NLP in line with Gregory Bateson's cybernetic epistemology bridges two overdrawn philosophical positions:

British empiricism (e.g. David Hume): all knowledge derives from sense experience.
German Idealism (e.g. Immanuel Kant): we perceive phenomena through time, space and the categories of the understanding.

The developers of NLP credited Gregory Bateson, and his book Steps to Ecology of Mind, and Alfred Korzybski and his book, Science and Sanity, for starting them on the philosophical path in founding NLP. They also credit the original models Virginia Satir, Fritz Perls and Milton H. Erickson, and aspects of transformational syntax. Perhaps Alfred Korzybski's influence can be summed up by his dictum ("The map is not the territory"), individual people in fact do not in general have access to absolute knowledge of reality, but in fact only have access to a set of beliefs they have built up over time, about reality. So it is considered important to be aware that people's beliefs about reality and their awareness of things (the "map") are not reality itself or everything they could be aware of ("the territory").

Grinder and Bandler made very clear that there was a profound (although blurred) difference between skills and techniques as a basis for working with people, and attitudes and approaches.

People who come to us in therapy typically have pain in their lives and experience little or no choice in matters which they consider important. All therapies are confronted with the problem of responding adequately to such people. Responding adequately in this context means to us assisting in changing the client's experience in some way which enriches it. Rarely do therapies accomplish this by changing the world. Their approach, then, is typically to change the client's experience of the world. People do not operate directly on the world, but operate necessarily on the world through their perception or model of the world. Therapies, then, characteristically operate to change the client's model of the world and consequently the client's behavior and experiences."

They were also influenced by Korybski idea in human modeling and Korzybski's critique of cause effect, there is in fact a category dedicated to this distorted language pattern in the NLP meta model. Gregory Bateson influence can be seen in the way NLP treats each person as an system and an individual, and in some communication theory such as the double bind.

Robert Dilts and Judith Delozier (2000) say "In considering NLP as a science however, it is important to recognize that the epistemology of NLP is more 'subjective' and 'systematically' oriented than many 'hard' sciences, which tend to be more 'objective' and 'deterministic'. That is the patterns explored and identified by NLP are often necessarily contextual and influenced by the perceptual filters of the observer." ... "As a scientific approach, then, NLP tends to be more 'qualitative' than 'quantitative' and more 'structuralist' than 'materialistic'" ...

Technology

This section may be unbalanced towards certain viewpoints. Please improve the article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

Psychologists, Singer and Lalich, criticized the 'quick-fix' attitude in NLP and the marketing that continues to refer to its originators as scientists and to NLP as a 'science', 'technology' and 'hi-tech psychology'. They quote Bandler as saying the term NLP was "phrased on the fly from several book titles on the floor of his car one night when a policeman asked his occupation." (p169). She also quotes Bandler as saying "it wasn't my job to do theory" and Tony Robbins as saying, "NLP is heavily pragmatic: if a tool works, it's included in the model, even if there's no theory to back it up....None of the current NLP developers have done any research to prove their models correct. The party line is 'pretend it works, try it, and notice the results you get. If you don't get the result you want, try something else'" Labouchere states that "NLP has a very pragmatic, applied focus on what is helpful, what works and how to replicate it (Bandler & Grinder, 1990). While NLP draws on and shares common ground with ‘mainstream’ cognitive psychology, it has, from its inception, continued to develop, refine, and apply its own unique range of concepts, models and techniques."

Partridge (2003) states that "NLP may be best thought of as a system of psychology concerned with the self development of the human being" and "It is concerned with the function of belief rather than its nature. It is not concerned whether a belief is true or not, but whether it is empowering or disempowering". Similarly, Stephen J. Hunt states that NLP "is a technique rather than an organized religion and is used by several different human potential movements". David V. Barrett (2001) also describes NLP as a technique or series of techniques, or a process. He states that that "the balance comes down against it being labeled as a religion".

Notes and references

"neurolinguistic programming n." A Dictionary of Psychology. Andrew M. Colman. Oxford University Press, 2006. Oxford Reference Online. Oxford University Press. 6 September 2007
^ Bandler, Richard & John Grinder (1975). The Structure of Magic I: A Book About Language and Therapy. Palo Alto, CA: Science & Behavior Books.
^ Grinder, John & Carmen Bostic St Clair (2001). Whispering in the Wind. CA: J & C Enterprises. ISBN 0-9717223-0-7.
^ Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1979). Frogs into Princes: Neuro Linguistic Programming. Moab, UT: Real People Press. pp. 149(p.8 (quote), pp.15, 24, 30, 45, 52). ISBN 0911226192. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "Bandler & Grinder 1979" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
Grinder, J., Bandler, R. (1976) Patterns of the Hypnotic Techniques of Milton H. Erickson Volume 1 ISBN 091699001X
^ Tosey, P. Jane Mathison (2003) Neuro-linguistic Programming and learning theory: a response The Curriculum Journal Vol.14 No.3 p.371-388 See also (available online): Neuro-linguistic programming: its potential for learning and teaching in formal education
^ Devilly GJ (2005) "Power therapies and possible threats to the science of psychology and psychiatry" Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry 39:437-445(9) Cite error: The named reference "Devilly 2005" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
^ Sharpley C.F. (1987). "Research Findings on Neuro-linguistic Programming: Non supportive Data or an Untestable Theory". Communication and Cognition. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1987 Vol. 34, No. 1: 103–107, 105.
^ Druckman and Swets (eds) (l988) Enhancing Human Performance: Issues, Theories, and Techniques, National Academy Press.
^ Lilienfeld, S.O. (2002). "Our Raisson D'etre". The Scientific Review of Mental Health Practice. 1(1): 20.
^ Gelso and Fassinger (1990) "Counseling Psychology: Theory and Research on Interventions" Annual Review of Psychology
See page 671 in Steenbarger (2002) "Single-session therapy: Theoretical underpinnings" In Elsevier Encyclopedia of Psychotherapy
Cooper and Seal (2006) "Theory and Approaches - Eclectic-integrative approaches: Neuro-linguistic programming" In Feldtham and Horton (Eds) The SAGE Handbook of Counselling and Psychotherapy 2e
Robert Dilts and Roxanna Erickson Klein (2006) "Historical: Neuro-linguistic Programming" in The Milton H. Erickson Foundation: Newsletter Summer 2006, 26(2).
Jacobson, S. (1994) Info-line: practical guidelines for training and development professionals, American Society For Training and Development Alexandria, VA Adapted version available online
^ Frogs into Princes, p.54-55.
^ Frogs into Princes, p.10: "One of the systematic things that Erickson and Satir and a lot of other effective therapists do is to notice unconsciously how the person they are talking to thinks, and make use of that information in lots and lots of different ways."
According to Haley, a well known writer on Milton Erickson, Erickson was notable amongst psychiatrists, because he would respond to metaphor with other metaphors, rather than by attempting to "interpret".
"He does not translate unconscious communication into conscious form. Whatever the patient says in metaphoric form, Erickson responds in kind. By parables, by interpersonal action, and by directives, he works within the metaphor to bring about change. He seems to feel that the depth and swiftness of that change can be prevented if the person suffers a translation of the communication." (Haley, "Uncommon therapy", 1973 + 1986, p.28)
^ For an example of "wired in" precise skills, Frogs into Princes, p.77: "One of the things that we noticed about Sal Minuchin, Virginia Satir, Milton Erickson and Fritz Perls is that they intuitively had many of those twelve questions in the meta-model wired in."
Frogs into Princes, p.162: "One of the things that I think distinguishes a really exquisite communicator from one who is not, is to be precise about your use of language... If you are precise about the way you phrase questions, you will get precise kinds of information back."
Norma Barretta (2004) Review of Hypnotic Language: Its Structure and Use. American Journal of Clinical Hypnosis. Bloomingdale: Jan 2004. Vol.46, Iss. 3; pg. 261, 2 pgs
^ Joseph O'Connor, John Seymour (2002 (first published 1990)). Introducing NLP. London: HarperCollins. 1855383446. {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
Pruett, Julie Annette Sikes (2002) The application of the neuro-linguistic programming model to vocal performance training D.M.A., The University of Texas at Austin, 151 pages; AAT 3108499
^ Buckner, Meara, Reese, and Reese (1987) Journal of Counselling Psychology , Vol. 34(3), pp.283-287
^ Sharpley, C. F. (1984). Predicate matching in NLP: A review of research on the preferred representational system. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 31(2), 238-248.
Heap, M. (1988). Neuro-linguistic programming, In M. Heap (Ed.) Hypnosis: Current Clinical, Experimental and Forensic Practices (PDF). London: Croom Helm.
^ Elich, M., Thompson, R. W., & Miller, L. (1985). Mental imagery as revealed by eye movements and spoken predicates: A test of neurolinguistic programming. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 32(4), 622-625. note: "psychological fad"p.625
^ Dilts, Robert B (2000). Encyclopedia of Systemic Neuro-Linguistic Programming and NLP New Coding. NLP University Press. ISBN 0970154003. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
(derived from Alfred Korzybski in "General Semantics" See also Gregory Bateson.).
^ Cooper, J. & Seal, P. "5.26 Neuro-linguistic programming (p.330)" in Feltham & Horton (eds.) The SAGE Handbook of Counselling And Psychotherapy Sage Publications.
(eg. Six step reframing)
Derived form the work of Gregory Bateson, much of which is collected in Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972). See also Paul Watzlawick
See also: Steps to an Ecology of Mind).
Krugman, Martin, et al., (1985): "Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth?." Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Aug, Vol. 53(4) pp. 526-530.
Haber, Russell, (2002): Virginia Satir: An integrated, humanistic approach Contemporary Family Therapy, Vol 24(1), Mar 2002,p32 pp. 23-34 ISSN 1573-3335 doi:10.1023/A:1014317420921
Masters, B Rawlins, M, Rawlins, L, Weidner, J. (1991) "The NLP swish pattern: An innovative visualizing technique. Journal of Mental Health Counseling. Vol 13(1) Jan 1991, 79-90. "
Joseph O'Connor NLP: A Practical Guide to Achieving the Results You Want: Workbook Harper Collins 2001
Sterman, CM (1990) Neuro-Linguistic Programming in Alcoholism Treatment. Haworth Press. ISBN 1560240024 p.
Alice Mills (1999) Pollyanna and the not so glad game. Children's Literature. Storrs: 1999. Vol.27 pg. 87, 18 pgs
Schabracq, M. (2003) "Everyday Well-Being and Stress in Work and Organisations" In The Handbook of Work and Health Psychology Schabracq, Winnubst & Cooper (Eds.) John Wiley and Sond. p.15
Einspruch, Eric L., Forman, Bruce D. (1985). "Observations Concerning Research Literature on Neuro-Linguistic Programming". Journal of Counseling Psychology. 32(4): pp. 589-596. {{cite journal}}: |pages= has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Krugman, Kirsch, Wickless, Milling, Golicz, & Toth (1985). Neuro-linguistic programming treatment for anxiety: Magic or myth? Journal of Consulting & Clinical Psychology. Vol 53(4), 526-530.
^ Druckman, Daniel (2004) "Be All That You Can Be: Enhancing Human Performance" Journal of Applied Social Psychology, Volume 34, Number 11, November 2004, pp. 2234-2260(27)
Von Bergen, C W, Barlow Soper, Gary T Rosenthal, Lamar V Wilkinson (1997). "Selected alternative training techniques in HRD". Human Resource Development Quarterly. 8(4): 281–294.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Efran, J S. Lukens M.D. (1990) Language, structure, and change: frameworks of meaning in psychotherapy, Published by W.W. Norton, New York. p.122
Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1996). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. p. p.172. ISBN 0787902780. {{cite book}}: |page= has extra text (help)
Corballis, M. in Sala (ed) (1999) Mind Myths. Exploring Popular Assumptions About the Mind and Brain Author: Sergio Della Sala Publisher: Wiley, John & Sons ISBN 0-471-98303-9 p.41
^ Scott O. Lilienfeld, Steven Jay Lynn, Jeffrey M. Lohr (eds) (2004) Science and Pseudoscience in Clinical Psychology
Willem Levelt (1996) Hoedt u voor Neuro-Linguïstisch Programmeren! Skepter Vol.9(3)
Brown, Derren (2000). Pure Effect: Direct Mindreading and Magical Artistry. H&R Magic Books. pp. 107, 110.
Was Derren Brown really playing Russian roulette - or was it just a trick? by Alok Jha, October 9, 2003, The Guardian
Robbins, Anthony (2003). Unlimited power: the new science of personal achievement. New York: Simon & Schuster, 448 pages. ISBN 0-684-84577-6.
Dilts, Grinder, Delozier and Bandler (1980) Neuro-linguistic Programming Volume 1
Turtles all the way down, 1987., Whispering in the Wind, 2001
eg. Using Your Brain: For a Change (1984), Persuasion Engineering, Design Human Engineering and recent works.
Cite web: 'NLP Knowledge Centre'
Cite web: 'NLP Schedule'
Cite web: ANLP News: NLP Matters
Cite web: NTIS: Graduate Certificate in Neuro-linguistic programming
Carroll, Robert T. "The Skeptic's Dictionary". . Retrieved 2003. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
^ Peter Schütz (Accessed 24th December 2006) A consumer guide through the multiplicity of NLP certification training: A European perspective
Grinder, John & Judith DeLozier (1987). Turtles All the Way Down: Prerequisites to Personal Genius. Scots Valley, CA: Grinder & Associates. ISBN 1-55552-022-7.
Kant, Immanuel. 1781. Critique of Pure Reason
Korzybski, Alfred. 1994 (1933). Science and Sanity: An Introduction to Non-Aristotelian Systems and General Semantics, Fifth Edition. Ft. Worth, TX: Institute of General Semantics.
Structure of Magic Vol.1, p.???.
^ Singer, Margaret & Janja Lalich (1997). Crazy Therapies: What Are They? Do They Work?. Jossey Bass. 0787902780. {{cite book}}: Text "p.169- 172" ignored (help)
Peter Labouchere (2004) Using participatory story telling, forum theatre and NLP concepts and techniques to create powerful learning experiences around issues of HIV prevention, support and positive living paper presented at at EE4 - Fourth International Entertainment Education Conference
Hunt, Stephen J. (2003) Alternative Religions: A Sociological Introduction ISBN 0-7546-3410-8
David V. Barrett (2001) The New Believers: A Survey of Sects, Cults and Alternative Religions Available online from Google Books. pp.434,26