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Indian religions are religions that originated in India or the Indian subcontinent. They are Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. It forms a subgroup of the larger class of "Eastern religions". These religions share many similarities in core beliefs, modes of worship, and associated practices due to their common history of origin, and some mutual influences. "Indian religions" is thus an umbrella term in the classification of the world's major religious groups, besides the Abrahamic religions and the Far Eastern religions.

Jainism and Buddhism are continuation of the sramana stream of thought. Buddhism was founded by Gautama Siddhartha, and Jainism is often said to have been founded by Mahavira, who is said to be the last in a long line of 24 enlightened beings . However, now the scholars hold that Parsva, the 23rd Tirthankara, (9th Century BCE) to be a historical person and that Mahavira rather than being a “founder” per se was, rather, simply a primary spokesman for much older tradition. Some scholars put Indo-Shramanical period at around 600 BCE to 300 BCE after the Indo-Brahamanical period. This is the period when Mahavira (599 – 527 BCE) and Buddha (563 BCE to 483 BCE) flourished and the Shramanical ideas were at their peak and found a wide acceptance in ancient India. Ancient India had two co-existent philosophical streams of thought, the Shramana religions and the (Brahmanical) Vedic religion. Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of Shramana traditions. Classical Hinduism arose in the course of the Middle Ages as a result of a syncretism or cross-pollination of the sramana and the Vedic/Vedantic traditions, divided into numerous denominations, primarily Shaivism, Shaktism, Vaishnavism, Smartha besides much smaller groups like Shrauta, and more recent Hindu reform movements and Ayyavazhi. About 90% of Hindus reside in the Republic of India, accounting for 83% of its population.

On the other hand, Sikhism is of more recent foundation, originating in the 15th century. Buddhism was historically founded and spread from India, but suffered a decline in its homeland. It remains more widespread in East Asia.

Common traits

Sometimes summarised as "Dharmic" religions or dharmic traditions, Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism share certain key concepts which are interpreted differently by different concepts. Likewise, common traits can be observed in both the ritual and the literary sphere. Thus, the head-anointing ritual of abhiseka is of importance in all three traditions. In literature, many classical Hindu narratives have Buddhist or Jain versions.All three traditions have notions of karma, dharma, samsara, moksha, and various yogas. Of course, these terms may be perceived differently by different religions. For instance, for a Hindu, dharma is his duty. For a Jain, dharma is his conduct. For a Buddhist, dharma is piety. For a Jain, dharma is righteousness. Similarly, for a Hindu, yoga is the cessation of all thought activities of the mind. Whereas, Jain epistemology sees yoga as the sum total of all the activities of mind, speech and body.

History

Prehistory

Evidence attesting to prehistoric religion in the Indian subcontinent derives from scattered Mesolithic rock paintings depicting dances and rituals. Neolithic pastoralists inhabiting the Indus River Valley buried their dead in a manner suggestive of spiritual practices that incorporated notions of an afterlife and belief in magic. Other South Asian Stone Age sites, such as the Bhimbetka rock shelters in central Madhya Pradesh and the Kupgal petroglyphs of eastern Karnataka, contain rock art portraying religious rites and evidence of possible ritualised music. The Harappan people of the Indus Valley Civilization, which lasted from 3300–1700 BCE and was centered around the Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys, may have worshiped an important mother goddess symbolising fertility. Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and "fire‑altars", indicating rituals associated with fire. A linga-yoni of a type similar to that which is now worshiped by Hindus has also been found.

Vedic religion

The root of Hinduism, and which lay the foundation of the belief systems of the Dharmic religions, the religious practices of Vedic times are followed nearly verbatim today by Hindus. However, the period is most significant for the composition of the four Vedas and some Upanishads (essentially commentaries on the Vedas), which today are the canonical texts of Hinduism and are the source for much of the belief matrix of the Dharmic religions.

The Vedas reflect the liturgy of Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age (Vedic period) Indo-Aryan ritualism in India. The religious practices centered on a clergy administering rituals/rites and sacrifices. The Brahmanas, and some of the older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB) are also considered Vedic. Elements of Vedic religion reach back into Proto-Indo-Iranian times. The Vedic period is held to have ended around 500 BC. Specific rituals and sacrifices of the Vedic religion include:

• The Soma cult described in the Rigveda, descended from a common Indo-Iranian practice.
• Fire rituals, also a common Indo-Iranian practice, cf. Zoroastrianism:
  • The Agnihotra or oblation to Agni, a sun charm,
  • The Agnicayana, the sophisticated ritual of piling the fire altar.
  • The Agnistoma or Soma sacrifice
• The Ashvamedha or horse sacrifice
• The Purushamedha, or sacrifice of a man, imitating that of the cosmic Purusha, cf. Purusha Sukta
• The rituals described in the Atharvaveda concerned with medicine and healing practises, as well as some charms.

Shramana

Buddhism and Jainism are a continuation of the Sramana tradition. 24th Jain Tirthankar, Mahavira (599–527 BCE), stressed five vows, including ahimsa (non-violence), satya (truthfulness), asteya(non-stealing) and aparigraha (non-attachment). The historical Gautama Buddha, who founded Buddhism, was born to the Shakya clan just before Magadha (which lasted from 546–324 BCE) rose to power. His family was native to the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal.

Vedanta

Rise and spread of Buddhism

Buddhism in India spread during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who patronised Buddhist teachings and unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He sent missionaries abroad, allowing Buddhism to spread across Asia. Indian Buddhism started declining following the rise of Puranic Hinduism during the Gupta dynasty, but continued to have a significant presence in some regions of India until 12th century.

Rise of classical Hinduism

After 200 CE, several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta. Hinduism, otherwise a highly theistic religion, hosted atheistic schools; the thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Cārvāka school that originated in India around the 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of Indian philosophy. Cārvāka is classified as a nastika ("heterodox") system; it is not included among the six schools of Hinduism generally regarded as orthodox. It is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism. Our understanding of Cārvāka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition. Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.

Between 400 CE and 1000 CE, Hinduism expanded as the decline of Buddhism in India continued. Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India.

Modern India

Communalism has played a key role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states—the Muslim-majority Dominion of Pakistan (comprising what is now the Islamic Republic of Pakistan and the People's Republic of Bangladesh) and the Hindu-majority Union of India (later the Republic of India). The 1947 Partition of India inaugurated rioting among Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in Punjab, Bengal, Delhi, and other parts of India; 500,000 died as a result of the violence. The twelve million refugees that moved between the newly founded nations of India and Pakistan composed one of the largest mass migrations in modern history. Since its independence, India has periodically witnessed large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. The Republic of India is secular; though it is often considered a Hindu holy land (punyabhumi), its government recognises no official religion. In recent decades, communal tensions and religion-based politics have become more prominent.

Vedic ritualism and Vedanta

Astika and Nastika categorization

Astika and nastika are sometimes used to categorise Indian religions. Those religions that believe that God is the central doer in this world, are termed as astika. Those religions that do not believe that God is the prime mover and doer in this world, are classified as nastika religions. From this point of view, the Vedic religion (aka Hinduism) is an astika religion, whereas Buddhism and Jainism are nastika religions.

Yet another definition of the terms astika and nastika, followed by Adi Shankara, classifies religions and persons as astika and nastika, according to whether they accept the authority of the main Hindu texts, the Vedas as supreme revealed scriptures, or not. By this definition, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Samkhya, Raja Yoga, Purva Mimamsa and Vedanta are classified as astika schools; while Charvaka is classified as a nastika schools. By this definition, both Buddhism and Jainism are classified as nastika religions since they do not accept the authority of the Vedas.

All three religions, Hinduism, Buddhism and Jainism agree that Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism ( as well as Lingayats) do not accept the authority of the Vedas. Despite a general doctrinal tolerance in the Hindu tradition, history shows instances of hostility against Jains such as in Tamil Nadu in the 7th century when Hindu Shaiva poets and teachers popularized the notion of Jains (or Samanars in Tamil) as villains opposed to the Shaiva creed. In modern India, Jains share a variety cultural and linguistic affinities with other religious communities.

Shramana traditions

Sikhism

Sikhism originated in fifteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus. The principal belief in Sikhism is faith in Vāhigurū— represented by the sacred symbol of ēk ōaṅkār. Sikhism's traditions and teachings are distinctly associated with the history, society and culture of the Punjab. Adherents of Sikhism are known as Sikhs (students or disciples) and number over 23 million across the world.

Notes

1. Adams, C. J., Classification of religions: Geographical, Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2007. Accessed: September 5, 2007
2. Harry Oldmeadow (2007) Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West, World Wisdom, Inc. ISBN 1933316225 – “Over time, apparent misunderstandings have arisen over the origins of Jainism and relationship with its sister religions of Hinduism and Buddhism. There has been an ongoing debate between Jainism and Vedic Hinduism as to which revelation preceded the other. What is historically known is that there was a tradition along with vedic Hinduism known as sramana dharma. Essentially, the sramana tradition included it its fold, the Jain and Buddhist traditions, which disagreed with the eternality of the Vedas, the needs for ritual sacrifices and the supremacy of the Brahmins. Page 141”
3. Larson, Gerald James (1995) “India’s Agony over religion” SUNY Press, ISBN 079142412X
4. (600 B.C.E. - 300 C.E.), Indiana university
5. "Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents". Adherents.com. Retrieved 2007-07-10.
6. Frawley, David. From the River of Heaven: Hindu and Vedic Knowledge for the Modern Age. Pg 27. Berkeley, California: Book Passage Press, 1990. ISBN 1878423010.
7. Encarta encyclopedia "Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism share with Hinduism the concept of dharma along with other key concepts, and the four religions may be said to belong to the dharmic tradition."
8. Westerlund, David Questioning the Secular State: The Worldwide Resurgence of Religion in Politics page 16 "may provide some possibilities for co-operation with Sikhs, Jains and Buddhists, who like Hindus are regarded as adherents of ‘dharmic' religions."
9. c.f. Encyclopedia Britannica, s.v. "Jainism > Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism"
10. "yogascittavrttinirodhah" Sutra 1 of Patanjali's Yogadarshana
11. Heehs 2002, p. 39 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
12. "Ancient Indians made 'rock music'". BBC News. 19 March 2004. Retrieved 2007-08-07. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
13. Fowler 1997, p. 90 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFFowler1997 (help).
14. These were not direct outgrowths of Vedism, instead, were concurrent streams of thought in ancient India. S. Cromwell Crawford, review of L. M. Joshi, Brahmanism, Buddhism and Hinduism, Philosophy East and West (1972): "Alongside Brahmanism was the non-Aryan Shramanic culture with its roots going back to prehistoric times."
15. Heehs 2002, p. 106 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeehs2002 (help).
16. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
17. Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFRadhakrishnanMoore1967 (help).
18. Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFChatterjeeDatta1984 (help).
19. "The rise of Buddhism and Jainism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism: Other religious influences. BBC. 26 July 2004. Retrieved 2007-04-21. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
20. Symonds 1950, p. 74 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSymonds1950 (help).
21. Ludden 1996, p. 253 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFLudden1996 (help).

References

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See also

• Indian philosophy
• Indology
• Ayyavazhi and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Hinduism
• Buddhism and Jainism
• Sikhism and Jainism
• Sikhism and Hinduism
• Eastern religion

External links

Statistics

• "Census of India 2001: Data on religion". Government of India (Office of the Registrar General). Retrieved 2007-05-28.

Constitution and law

• "Constitution of India". Government of India (Ministry of Law and Justice). Retrieved 2007-05-28.

Reports

• "International Religious Freedom Report 2006: India". United States Department of State. Retrieved 2007-05-28.

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• Articles to be merged from January 2008
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