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Ancient Egypt was a civilization in eastern North Africa concentrated along the middle to lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now the modern nation of Egypt. The civilization began around 3150 BC with the political unification of Upper and Lower Egypt under the first pharaoh, and it developed over the next three millennia. Its history is divided into a series of stable periods, known as Kingdoms, separated by periods of relative instability known as Intermediate Periods. After the end of the last Kingdom, known as the New Kingdom, the civilization of ancient Egypt entered a period of slow, steady decline, during which Egypt was conquered by a succession of foreign powers. The rule of the pharaohs officially ended in 31 BC when the early Roman Empire conquered Egypt and made it a province.

The civilization of ancient Egypt thrived from adaptation to the conditions of the Nile River Valley. Controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops, which fueled social development and culture. With resource to spare, the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions, the early development of an independent writing system, the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects, trade with surrounding regions, and a military that defeated foreign enemies and asserted Egyptian dominance. Motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes, religious leaders, and administrators under the control of the divine pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the Egyptian people by means of an elaborate system of religious beliefs.

The many achievements of the ancient Egyptians include a system of mathematics, quarrying, surveying, and construction techniques that facilitated the building of monumental pyramids, temples, and obelisks, faience and glass technology, a practical and effective system of medicine, new forms of literature, irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques, and the earliest known peace treaty. Egypt left a lasting legacy: art and architecture were copied and antiquities paraded around the world, and monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of tourists and writers for centuries. A newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period led to the scientific investigation of Egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy for Egypt and the world.

History

Template:Small Egyptian Dynasty List

By the late Paleolithic period, the arid climate of northern Africa had become increasingly hot and dry, forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the Nile valley, and since nomadic hunter-gatherers began living in the region during the Pleistocene some 1.8 million years ago, the Nile has been the lifeline of Egypt. The fertile floodplain of the Nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated, centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization.

Predynastic Period

By about 5500 BC, small tribes living in the Nile valley had developed into a series of unique cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry and identifiable by their unique pottery and personal items, such as combs, bracelets, and beads. The earliest of these cultures were established in Lower Egypt at el-Omari north of Helwan, at Merimda in the western Nile Delta, and along the northern shoreline of Lake Moeris in the Faiyum region. El-Omari and especially the Faiyum Neolithic were noted for advanced stone tools which shaped prehistoric lithic industry in Egypt. Faiyum lay at the intersection of three routes: from the Nile Valley itself, from the eastern Sahara and from the Near East, thus displaying characteristics of all three. Merimda was one of the largest northern communities, comparable in size and structure to predynastic Nekhen. In addition to its lithic technology, its culture is characterized by sophisticated forms of vases and pottery ring-stands and ladles, and the stone maceheads that became popular in later Egyptian history.

Many centuries later, the southern predynastic cultures began to establish. They were contemporaneous with later predynastic settlements in northern Egypt, such as Maadi, Buto and Heliopolis. The earliest southern community, Badari, was known for its high quality ceramics, stone tools, and its use of copper. Badarian burials, simple pit graves with signs of social stratification, suggest that the culture was coming under the control of more powerful leaders. In the north, Maadian pottery was a local development, made from Nile silt and occasionally decorated with birds and serekhs bearing the first Horus names. While Maadi was something of a commercial center, contact between Lower and Upper Egypt at this point was not significant; trade relations with Palestine and Sumer, however, were strongly attested. The site was also the main source of basalt vessels, whose distribution becomes more widespread in the south after northern Egypt falls under the control of the Upper Egyptian rulers.

The Naqada culture began to expand along the Nile by about 4000 BC. Over a period of about 1000 years, the Naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the Nile valley. Establishing a power center at Nekhen, and later at Abydos, Naqada leaders expanded their control of Egypt northwards along the Nile and engaged in trade with Nubia, the oases of the western desert, and the cultures of the eastern Mediterranean. The Naqada culture manufactured a diverse array of material goods, which included painted pottery, high quality decorative stone vases, cosmetic palettes, and jewelry made of gold, lapis, and ivory. They also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience, which was used well into the Roman Period to decorate cups, amulets, and figurines. During the last phase of the predynastic, the Naqada culture began using written symbols that evolved into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the Egyptian language.

Early Dynastic Period

The ancient Egyptians chose to begin their official history with a king named "Meni" (or Menes in Greek) who they believed had united the two kingdoms of Upper and Lower Egypt. The transition to a unified state actually happened more gradually than the ancient Egyptian writers would have us believe, and there is no contemporary record of Menes. Scholars now believe, however, that the mythical Menes may have actually been the pharaoh Narmer, who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial Narmer Palette in a symbolic act of unification. The third century BC Egyptian priest Manetho grouped the long line of pharaohs following Menes into 30 dynasties, a system still in use today.

In the Early Dynastic Period about 3150 BC, the first pharaohs solidified their control over lower Egypt by establishing a capital at Memphis, from which they could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the Levant. The increasing power and wealth of the pharaohs during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at Abydos, which were used to celebrate the deified pharaoh after his death. The strong institution of kingship developed by the pharaohs served to legitimize state control over the land, labor, and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient Egyptian civilization.

Old Kingdom

Stunning advances in architecture, art, and technology were made during the Old Kingdom, fueled by the increased agricultural productivity made possible by a well developed central administration. Under the direction of the vizier, state officials collected taxes, coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield, drafted peasants to work on construction projects, and established a justice system to maintain peace and order. With the surplus resources made available by a productive and stable economy, the state was able to sponsor construction of colossal monuments and to commission exceptional works of art from the royal workshops. The pyramids built by Djoser, Khufu, and their descendants are the most memorable symbols of ancient Egyptian civilization, and power of the pharaohs that controlled it.

Along with the rising importance of a central administration arose a new class of educated scribes and officials who were granted estates by the pharaoh in payment for their services. Pharaohs also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples to ensure that these institutions would have the necessary resources to worship the pharaoh after his death. By the end of the Old Kingdom, five centuries of these feudal practices had slowly eroded the economic power of the pharaoh, who could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration. As the power of the pharaoh diminished, regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the pharaoh. This, coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150 BC, ultimately caused the country to enter a 140-year period of famine and strife known as the First Intermediate Period.

First Intermediate Period

After Egypt's central government collapsed at the end of the Old Kingdom, the administration could no longer support or stabilize the country's economy. Regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis, and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and small-scale civil wars. Yet despite difficult problems, local leaders, owing no tribute to the pharaoh, used their newfound independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces. Once in control of their own resources, the provinces became economically richer—a fact demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes. In bursts of creativity, provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the Old Kingdom, and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period.

Free from their loyalties to the pharaoh, local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power. By 2160 BC, rulers in Hierakonpolis controlled Lower Egypt, while a rival clan based in Thebes, Intef I, took control of Upper Egypt. As the Intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward, a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable. Around 2055 BC the Theban forces under Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II finally defeated the Herakleopolitan rulers, reuniting the Two Lands and inaugurating a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the Middle Kingdom.

Middle Kingdom

The pharaohs of the Middle Kingdom restored the country's prosperity and stability, thereby stimulating a resurgence of art, literature, and monumental building projects. Mentuhotep II and his 11th Dynasty successors ruled from Thebes, but the vizier Amenemhet I, upon assuming kingship at the beginning of the 12th Dynasty around 1985 BC, shifted the nation's capital to the city of Itjtawy located in Faiyum. From Itjtawy, the pharaohs of the 12th Dynasty undertook a far-sighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region. Moreover, the military reconquered territory in Nubia rich in quarries and gold mines, while laborers built a defensive structure in the Eastern Delta, called the "Walls-of-the-Ruler", to defend against foreign attack.

Having secured military and political security and vast agricultural and mineral wealth, the nation's population, arts, and religion flourished. In contrast to elitist Old Kingdom attitudes towards the gods, the Middle Kingdom experienced an increase in expressions of personal piety and what could be called a democratization of the afterlife, in which all people possessed a soul and could be welcomed into the company of the gods after death. Middle Kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident, eloquent style, and the relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle, individual details that reached new heights of technical perfection.

The last great ruler of the Middle Kingdom, Amenemhat III, allowed Asiatic settlers into the delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns. These ambitious building and mining activities, however, combined with inadequate Nile floods later in his reign, strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the Second Intermediate Period during the later 13th and 14th dynasties. During this decline, the foreign Asiatic settlers began to seize control of the delta region, eventually coming to power in Egypt as the Hyksos.

Second Intermediate Period and the Hyksos

Around 1650 BC, as the power of the Middle Kingdom pharaohs weakened, Asiatic immigrants living in the Eastern Delta town of Avaris seized control of the region and forced the central government to retreat to Thebes, where the pharaoh was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute. The Hyksos ("foreign rulers") imitated Egyptian models of government and portrayed themselves as pharaohs, thus integrating Egyptian elements into their Middle Bronze Age culture.

After their retreat, the Theban kings found themselves trapped between the Hyksos to the north and the Hyksos' Nubian allies, the Kushites, to the south. Nearly 100 years of tenuous inaction followed, and it was not until 1555 BC that the Theban forces gathered enough strength to challenge the Hyksos in a conflict that would last more than 30 years. The pharaohs Seqenenre Tao II and Kamose were ultimately able to defeat the Nubians, but it was Kamose's successor, Ahmose I, who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the Hyksos' presence in Egypt. In the New Kingdom that followed, the military became a central priority for the pharaohs seeking to expand Egypt’s borders and secure her complete dominance of the Near East.

New Kingdom

The New Kingdom marks the rise of Egypt as international power with secure and expanded borders. Ahmose I founded its first dynasty and relocated the capital from Avaris to Thebes, while maintaining administration at Memphis. Campaigns waged under Tuthmosis I and his grandson Tuthmosis III extended the influence of the pharaohs into Syria and Nubia, cementing their loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood. The New Kingdom pharaohs began a large-scale building campaign to promote the god Amun, whose growing cult was based in Karnak. They also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements, both real and imagined. The female pharaoh Hatshepsut used such propaganda to legitimize her claim to the throne. Her successful reign was marked by trading expeditions to Punt, an elegant mortuary temple, a colossal pair of obelisks and a chapel at Karnak. Despite her achievements, Hatshepsut's nephew-stepson Tuthmosis III sought to erase her legacy near the end of his reign, possibly in retaliation for her usurping of his throne.

Around 1350 BC, the New Kingdom's prosperous expansion, construction, and accumulation of wealth, established over a period of nearly 200 years, was briefly jeopardized when Amenhotep IV unexpectedly ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms. Changing his name to Akhenaten, he touted the previously obscure sun god Aten as the supreme deity, suppressed the worship of other deities, and attacked the power of the entrenched priestly establishment. Moving the capital to the new city of Akhetaten (modern-day Amarna), Akhenaten turned a deaf ear to foreign affairs and absorbed himself in his new religion and artistic style. After his death, the cult of the Aten was quickly abandoned, and the subsequent pharaohs Tutankhamun, Aye, and Horemheb quietly erased all mention of Akhenaten's heresy, now known as the Amarna Period.

The 18th Dynasty ended when its last three kings—Tutankhamun, Aye, and Horemheb—all died without an heir. The throne then passed to the military man Ramesses I, who founded the 19th Dynasty. His grandson Ramesses II, also known as Ramesses the Great, ascended the throne around 1279 BC at the age of 18 and built more temples, erected more statues and obelisks, and sired more children than any other pharaoh in history. A bold military leader, Ramesses II led his army against the Hittites in the Battle of Kadesh and, after fighting to a stalemate, eventually concluded the first recorded peace treaty in 1258 BC. Despite this temporary peace, internal struggles and foreign threats would again challenge the prosperity of the region.

Egypt's wealth made it a tempting target for invasion, and the pharaohs of the late New Kingdom were repeatedly challenged by the Libyans and the Sea Peoples. Initially, the military was able to repel these invasions, but Egypt eventually lost control of Syria and Palestine. The impact of external threats was exacerbated by internal problems: corruption within the administration, theft from the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings and civil unrest undermined the unity of the country and the authority of the pharaoh. During the New Kingdom, the high priests at the temple of Amun in Thebes had accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth, and their growing power splintered the country during the Third Intermediate Period.

Third Intermediate Period

Following the death of Ramesses XI in 1078 BC, Smendes assumed authority over the northern part of Egypt, ruling from the city of Tanis. The southern part was effectively controlled by the High Priests of Amun at Thebes, who recognized Smendes in name and title only. During this time, Libyans had been settling in the western delta, and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy. Libyan princes took control of the delta under Shoshenq I in 945, founding the so-called Libyan or Bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years. Sheshonq also gained control of southern Egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions. Libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in Leontopolis, and Kushites threatened from the south. Around 727 BC the Kushite king Piye invaded northward, seizing control of Thebes and eventually the Delta.

Egypt's far-reaching prestige declined considerably by the end of the Third Intermediate Period. Its foreign allies had fallen under the Assyrian sphere of influence, and by 700 BC war between the two states became inevitable. Between 671 and 667 BC the Assyrians began their attack on Egypt. The reigns of both Taharqa and his successor, Tanutamun, were filled with constant conflict with the Assyrians, against whom Egypt enjoyed several victories. Ultimately, the Assyrians pushed the Kushites back into Nubia, occupied Memphis, and sacked the temples of Thebes.

Late Period

With no permanent plans for conquest, the Assyrians left control of Egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the Saite kings of the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. By 653 BC, the Saite king Psamtik I was able to oust the Assyrians with the help of Greek mercenaries, who were recruited to form Egypt's first navy. Greek influence expanded greatly as the city of Naukratis became the home of Greeks in the delta. The Saite kings based in the new capital of Sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture, but in 525 BC, the powerful Persians, led by Cambyses II, began their conquest of Egypt, eventually capturing the pharaoh Psamtik III at the battle of Pelusium. Cambyses II then assumed the formal title of pharaoh, but ruled Egypt from his home of Susa, leaving Egypt under the control of a satrapy. A few successful revolts against the Persians marked the 5th century BC, but Egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the Persians.

Following its annexation by Persia, Egypt was joined with Cyprus and Phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. This first period of Persian rule over Egypt, also known as the Twenty-Seventh dynasty, ended in 402 BC, and from 380–343 BC the Thirtieth Dynasty ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of Nectanebo II. A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343 BC, but shortly after, in 332 BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to Alexander the Great without a fight.

Ptolemaic Dynasty

In 332 BC, Alexander III of Macedon conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer. The Greek government established by Alexander's successors, the Ptolemies, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new capital city of Alexandria. The city was to showcase the power and prestige of Greek rule, and became a seat of learning and culture, centered at the famous Library of Alexandria. The Lighthouse of Alexandria lit the way for the many ships, which kept trade flowing through the city, as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority.

Greek culture did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace. They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs. Some traditions merged, as Greek and Egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities, such as Serapis, and classical Greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs. Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria which had formed following the death of Ptolemy IV. In addition, as Rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country. Continued Egyptian revolting, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syrian opponents made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire.

Roman domination

Egypt became a province of the Roman Empire in 30 BC, following the defeat of Marc Antony and Ptolemaic Queen Cleopatra VII by Octavian (later Emperor Augustus) in the Battle of Actium. The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period. Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome.

Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude towards the Egyptians than the Greeks, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, and some of the Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had. The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship. Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native Egyptians.

From the mid-first century AD, Christianity took root in Alexandria and spread. Incompatible with paganism, Christianity sought to win converts and threatened popular religious traditions. This led to persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of Diocletian starting in 303 AD, but eventually Christianity won out. As a consequence, Egypt's pagan culture was continually in decline. While the native population continued to speak their language, the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished. The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert.

Government and economy

Administration and commerce

The pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and, at least in theory, wielded complete control of the land and its resources. The king was also the supreme military commander, responsible for all military and policy decisions. The king relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs, and in charge of the administration was his second in command, the vizier. The vizier acted as the king's representative and coordinated land surveys, the treasury, building projects, the legal system, and the archives. At a local level, the country was divided into 42 administrative regions called nomes. Each nome's governor, called a nomarch, was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction. The temples formed the backbone of the economy and were not only houses of worship, but were also responsible for collecting and storing the nation's wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries. From these central storage facilities, administered by overseers, grain and goods could be distributed to the populace.

Much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled. Although the ancient Egyptians did not use coinage until the Late period, they did use a type of money-barter system, with standard sacks of grain and the deben, a weight of roughly 91 grams (3 oz) of copper or silver, forming a common denominator. Workers were paid in grain; a simple laborer might earn 5½ sacks (200 kg or 400 lb) of grain per month, while a foreman might earn 7½ sacks (250 kg or 550 lb). Prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading; for example a shirt cost five copper deben, while a cow cost 140 deben. Grain could be traded for other goods, according to the fixed price list. During the 5th century BC coined money was introduced into Egypt from abroad. At first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money, but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage.

Social status

Egyptian society was highly stratified, and social status was expressly displayed. Farmers made up the bulk of the population, but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state, temple, or noble family that owned the land. Farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system. Artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers, but they were also under state control, working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury. Scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient Egypt, the so-called "white kilt class" in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank. The upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature. Below the nobility were the priests, physicians, and engineers with specialized training in their field. Slavery was known in ancient Egypt, but the extent and prevalence of its practice are unclear.

The ancient Egyptians viewed men and women, including people from all social classes except slaves, as essentially equal under the law, and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress. Both men and women had the right to own and sell property, make contracts, marry and divorce, receive inheritance, and pursue legal disputes in court. Married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts, which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end. Compared with their counterparts in ancient Greece, Rome, and even more modern places around the world, ancient Egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices and opportunities for achievement. Women such as Hatshepsut and Cleopatra even became pharaohs, while others wielded power as Divine Wives of Amun. Despite these freedoms, ancient Egyptian women did not take part in official roles in the administration, served only secondary roles in the temples, and were not as likely to be as educated as men.

Legal system

The head of the legal system in ancient Egypt was officially the pharaoh, who was responsible for proclaiming laws, delivering justice, and maintaining law and order, a concept the ancient Egyptians referred to as Ma'at. Although no legal codes from ancient Egypt survive, the many existing court documents of the period show that Egyptian law was based on a common-sense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes.

Local councils of elders, known as Kenbet in the New Kingdom, were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes, although the Kenbet's ability to enforce its rulings was limited. Local Kenbets deferred serious or complicated cases involving murder, major land transactions, and tomb robbery to the Great Kenbet, over which the vizier or pharaoh presided. Plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves in legal matters and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth. In cases of tomb robbery or assassination plots, the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge, and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any co-conspirators. Whether the charges were trivial or serious, court scribes documented the complaint, testimony, and verdict of the case for future reference.

Punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines, beatings, facial mutilation, or exile, depending on the severity of the offense. Serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution, carried out by decapitation, drowning, or impaling the criminal on a stake. Punishment could also be extended to the criminal's family.

Beginning with the New Kingdom, oracles played a major role in the legal system, dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases. The procedure was to ask the god a "yes" or "no" question concerning the right or wrong of an issue. The god, carried by a number of priests, rendered judgment by choosing one or the other, moving forward or backward, or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon.

Agriculture

A combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient Egyptian culture, the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the Nile river. The ancient Egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food, allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural, technological, and artistic pursuits. Land management was crucial in ancient Egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned.

Farming in Egypt was dependent on the cycle of the Nile River. The Egyptians recognized three seasons: Akhet (flooding), Peret (planting), and Shemu (harvesting). The flooding season lasted from June to September, depositing on the river's banks a layer of mineral-rich silt perfect for growing crops. After the floodwaters had receded, the growing season lasted from October to February. Farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields, which were irrigated with ditches and canals. Egypt received little rainfall, so farmers relied on the Nile to water their crops. From March to May, farmers used sickles to harvest their crops, which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain. Winnowing removed the chaff from the grain, and the grain was then ground into flour, brewed to make beer, or stored for later use.

The ancient Egyptians cultivated emmer and barley, and several other cereal grains, all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer. Flax plants, uprooted before they started flowering, were grown for the fibers of their stems. These fibers were split along their length and spun into thread, which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing. Papyrus growing on the banks of the Nile River was used to make paper. Vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots, close to habitations and on higher ground, and had to be watered by hand. Vegetables included leeks, garlic, melons, squashes, pulses, lettuce, and other crops, in addition to grapes that were made into wine.

Animals

The Egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order; thus humans, animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole. Animals, both domesticated and wild, were therefore a critical source of spirituality, companionship, and sustenance to the ancient Egyptians. Cattle were the most important livestock; the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses, and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them. In addition to cattle, the ancient Egyptians kept sheep, goats, and pigs. Poultry such as ducks, geese, and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms, where they were force-fed with dough to fatten them. The Nile provided a plentiful source of fish. Bees were also domesticated from at least the Old Kingdom, and they provided both honey and wax.

The ancient Egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden, and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil. The slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual. Horses were introduced by the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, and the camel, although known from the New Kingdom, was not used as a beast of burden until the Late Period. Dogs, cats and monkeys were common family pets, while more exotic pets imported from the heart of Africa, such as lions, were reserved for royalty. Herodotus observed that the Egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses. During the Predynastic and Late periods, the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular, such as the cat goddess Bastet and the ibis god Thoth, and these animals were bred in large numbers on farms for the purpose of ritual sacrifice.

Natural resources

Egypt is rich in building and decorative stone, copper and lead ores, gold, and semiprecious stones. These natural resources allowed the ancient Egyptians to build monuments, sculpt statues, make tools, and fashion jewelry. They were so thorough in the search for gold that no new deposits have since been discovered in Egypt. Embalmers used salts from the Wadi Natrun for mummification, which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster.

The ore-bearing rock formations of ancient Egypt were found in distant, inhospitable wadis of the eastern desert and the Sinai and required large, state-controlled expeditions to obtain the gold, copper ores, and decorative stones found there. The Wadi Hammamat was a notable source of granite, greywacke, and gold. Whenever possible, prisoners and slaves were forced into mining service, but Egyptian peasants were also conscripted for this unpleasant labor.

Flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools, and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the Nile valley. Nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose. The Egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at Gebel Rosas to make net sinkers, plumb bobs, and small figurines. Copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient Egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the Sinai. Workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits, or by the more labor-intensive process of grinding and washing gold-bearing quartzite. Iron deposits found in upper Egypt were utilized in the Late Period. High-quality building stones were abundant in Egypt; the ancient Egyptians quarried limestone all along the Nile valley, granite from Aswan, and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert. Deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry, greywacke, alabaster, and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the First Dynasty. In the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods, miners worked deposits of emeralds in Wadi Sikait and amethyst in Wadi el-Hudi.

Language

Development

r n kmt 'Egyptian language' in hieroglyphs

The Egyptian language is a northern Afro-Asiatic language closely related to Berber and Semitic. It has the longest documented history of any language, having remained in written use from c. 3200 BC to the Middle Ages and as a spoken language for longer. Scholars broadly divide the Egyptian language into two major phases: Earlier Egyptian comprising Old and Middle Egyptian (Classical Egyptian), and Later Egyptian, which includes the Late, Demotic and Coptic stages of the language. Some of the most well-known pieces of ancient Egyptian literature, such as the Pyramid Texts, the Coffin Texts and the Tale of Sinuhe, were written in Earlier Egyptian, which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300 BC.

Later Egyptian was spoken from the New Kingdom onward and is represented in Ramesside administrative documents, love poetry and tales like the Story of Wenamun, as well as in Demotic and Coptic texts written during the Graeco-Roman, Byzantine and Islamic periods. While pre-Coptic writing does not convey dialectal differences, it is likely that Egyptian was spoken in several regional dialects; Earlier Egyptian represents the dialect of Lower Egypt spoken around Memphis, while Later Egyptian is generally representative of the Upper Egyptian dialects, particularly in the region of Thebes, to which the capital was later moved.

The transition from Earlier to Later Egyptian displays a number of linguistic and orthographic innovations, namely a change from synthetic to more analytic patterns in the verbal system and the nominal syntax, and the development of different scripts for writing the language. Later Egyptian develops prefixal definite and indefinite articles, which replace the earlier suffix markers of grammatical oppositions like person, gender and number, and undergoes a change from the older VSO word order (like that of Classical Arabic and Biblical Hebrew) to SVO. The older Egyptian writing systems, namely the native hieroglyphic, hieratic, and demotic scripts, eventually give way to the more phonetic Coptic alphabet. The last phase of Egyptian, Coptic, continues to be used in the liturgy of the Egyptian Orthodox Church, and traces of it are found in modern Egyptian Arabic.

Sounds and grammar

Egyptian has a phonemic inventory of about 25 consonants similar to those of other Afro-Asiatic languages. These include the characteristic pharyngeal and to a lesser extent emphatic consonants, in addition to voiced and voiceless stops, voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates. Three long and three short vowels, which expanded in Later Egyptian to about nine, are distinguished. The basic word in Egyptian, similar to Semitic and Berber, is a triliteral or biliteral root made up of a sequence of consonants and semiconsonants to which several affixes are attached to indicate a morphosyntactic category such as tense, gender, voice and number.

Verbs can be divided into a finite form that gets inflected for grammatical categories, and non-finite verbs such as infinitives and participles. The form that an Egyptian finite verb can take corresponds to the forms of the personal pronouns, yielding a paradigm of 11 including three rarer dual forms. The triconsonantal skeleton S-Ḏ-M, for example, is the semantic core of the word 'hear'; its basic conjugation is sḏm=f 'he hears'. In contrast to other Afro-Asiatic languages, a non-finite verb heads a clause if the subject is a noun regardless of its grammatical number or person; for example, sḏm Rˁ 'Ra hears'.

Nouns and adjectives are treated in a similar fashion, with adjectives being formed derivationally from a noun stem through a process that Egyptologists call nisbation. Egyptian has three basic sets of personal pronouns and a fourth known as the stative form of the verb. The typical order of constituents in Egyptian syntax is PREDICATE-SUBJECT in sentences with verbal and adjectival predicates, and SUBJECT-PREDICATE in sentences in which the predicate is a noun phrase or an adpositional phrase. Verb arguments in Egyptian are frequently topicalized at the beginning of sentences, particularly when the perfect is employed, and are followed by a coreferential pronoun. Stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable, which can be open (CV) or closed (CVC).

Writing

The traditional Egyptian writing system known as "hieroglyphic" (incorrectly termed "hieroglyphics") dates to c. 3200 BC, and is composed of some 500 symbols called hieroglyphs. Each hieroglyph is a pictogram (which Egyptologists call ideograms), such as a bird, tool, or body part, and most of the common hieroglyphs correspond to a letter or letter combination in the alphabet. Words in the language are spelled out by stringing together the hieroglyphs whose sounds make up the word. Like the Semitic languages, Egyptian does not indicate vowels until the Coptic alphabet begins to be employed.

Hieroglyphs were a formal script, used on stone monuments and in tombs, that could be as detailed as individual works of art. In day-to-day writing, scribes used a cursive form of writing, called hieratic, which was quicker and easier. While formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction (though typically written from right to left), hieratic was always written from right to left, usually in horizontal rows. A new form of writing, Demotic, became the prevalent writing style, and it is this form of writing—along with formal hieroglyphs—that accompany the Greek text on the Rosetta Stone.

Around the 1st century AD, the native demotic script gave way to the Coptic alphabet, a modified Greek alphabet with the addition of demotic graphemes. Although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the 4th century AD, towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them. As the traditional religious establishments were disbanded, knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost. Attempts to decipher them date to the Byzantine and Islamic periods in Egypt, but only in 1822, after the discovery of the Rosetta stone and years of research by Thomas Young and Jean-François Champollion, were hieroglyphs almost fully deciphered.

Literature

Writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs. It was primarily an occupation of the scribes, who worked along with physicians out of the institution known in Egyptian as Per Ankh or the House of Life. Each major city, including Memphis, Damanhur, Akhetaten (in the Amarna period), Akhmim and Thebes, hosted a Per Ankh which was attached to the main temple. They comprised offices, libraries (called House of Books), laboratories and observatories. The oldest and most extensive collection of texts were preserved as inscriptions on the walls of five Old Kingdom pyramids. During this period, the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography, such as those of Harkhuf and Weni. The genre known as Sebayt (Instructions) was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles; the Ipuwer papyrus, a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval, is an extreme example of such an instruction.

During the First Intermediate Period and the Middle Kingdom, the prose style of literature matured, with the Story of Sinuhe perhaps being the classic of Egyptian literature written in Middle Egyptian. Also written at this time was the Westcar Papyrus, a set of stories told to Khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests. Towards the end of the New Kingdom, the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the Tale of Wenamun and the Instructions of Ani. The former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from Lebanon and of his struggle to return to Egypt; the text also shows the end of united Egypt and the start of the tumultuous Third Intermediate Period. From about 700 BC, narrative stories and instructions, such as the popular Instructions of Onchsheshonqy, as well as personal and business documents, contracts, letters, wills, and court dealings were written in the demotic script and phase of Egyptian. Many stories written in demotic during the Graeco-Roman period were set in previous historical eras, when Egypt was an independent nation and ruled by great pharaohs such as Ramesses II.

Culture

Daily life

Most ancient Egyptians were farmers tied to the land. Their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members, and were constructed of mud-brick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day. Each home had a kitchen with an open roof, which contained a grindstone for milling flour and a small oven for baking bread. Walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings. Floors were covered with reed mats, and wooden stools, beds raised from the floor, and individual tables comprised the furniture.

The ancient Egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance. Most bathed in the Nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk. Men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness, and aromatic perfumes and ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin. Clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white, and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs, jewelry, and cosmetics. Children went without clothing until maturity, at about age 12, and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved. Mothers were responsible for taking care of the children, while the father provided the family's income.

The staple of the diet consisted of bread and beer, supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic, and fruit such as dates and figs. Wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis. Fish, meat, and foul could be salted or dried, and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill. Music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them. Early instruments included flutes and harps, while instruments similar to trumpets, oboes, and pipes developed later and became popular. In the New Kingdom, the Egyptians played on bells, cymbals, tambourines, and drums and imported lutes and lyres from Asia. The sistrum was a rattle-like musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies.

The ancient Egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities, including games and music. Senet, a board game where pieces moved according to random chance, was particularly popular from the earliest times; another similar game was mehen, which had a circular gaming board. Juggling and ball games were popular with children, and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at Beni Hasan. The wealthy members of ancient Egyptian society enjoyed hunting and boating as well.

Architecture

The architecture of ancient Egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world: the Great Pyramids of Giza, Abu Simbel, and the temples at Thebes. All major building projects were organized and funded by the state, and they not only fulfilled religious, military, and commemorative purposes, but also reinforced the power and reputation of the pharaoh to ensure his legacy for all time. The ancient Egyptians were skilled builders with expert knowledge of basic surveying and construction techniques. Using simple but effective measuring ropes, plum bobs, and sighting instruments, architects could build large stone structures with accuracy and precision.

Most buildings in ancient Egypt were constructed from perishable materials such as mud bricks and wood, and have not survived. The domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary Egyptians alike were made of such materials, and the representational evidence is fairly scanty. Only few schematized depictions of palaces and houses appear on tomb walls, in addition to some model buildings that were made in the Middle and New Kingdoms. The remains of the palaces of Amenhotep III and Akhenaten at Malkata and Amarna provide glimpses of a very opulent lifestyle and structure. A typical residential palace in the 18th and 19th dynasties consisted of symmetrical public and private quarters, and was characterized by an eleveated façade, an akhet-shaped pylon, and a court with a surrounding colonnade and high roofs in the throne room. Walls and floors were richly decorated with scenes of birds and animals, lotus marshes, water pools, rosettes and court women.

Religious structures, such as temples and tombs, were intended to last forever and were instead constructed of stone. The first large-scale stone building in the world, the mortuary complex of Djoser, was built in the Third Dynasty as a stone imitation of the mud-brick and wooden structures used in daily life. The architectural elements used in Djoser's mortuary complex, including post and lintel construction of huge stone roof blocks supported by external walls and closely spaced columns, would be copied many times in Egyptian history. Decorative styles introduced in the Old Kingdom, such as the lotus and papyrus motifs, are a recurring theme in ancient Egyptian architecture.

The earliest tomb architecture in ancient Egypt was the mastaba, a flat-roofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber. The mastaba was the most popular tomb among the nobility in the Old Kingdom, and the first pyramid, the step pyramid of Djoser, is actually a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other. The step pyramid was itself the inspiration for the first true pyramids. Pyramids were built by the pharaohs of the Old and Middle Kingdoms, but later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rock-cut tombs. New Kingdom pharaohs built their rock-cut tombs in the Valley of the Kings, and by the Third Intermediate Period, the pharaohs had abandoned building grand tomb architecture altogether.

The earliest preserved ancient Egyptian temples, dating back to the Old Kingdom, consist of single, enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns. The mortuary temples connected to the pyramids at Giza are examples of this early temple. During the Fifth Dynasty, pharaohs developed the sun temple, the focus of which was a squat, pyramid-shaped obelisk known as a benben stone. The benben stone and other temple structures were surrounded by an outer wall and connected to the Nile via a causeway terminating in a valley temple. In the New Kingdom, architects added the pylon, the open courtyard, and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temple's sanctuary. Because the common people were not allowed past the entry pylon, the deity residing in the inner sanctuary was distanced from the outside world. This type of cult temple was standard until the Ptolemaic and Roman Periods.

Art

The ancient Egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes rather than to express creative genius. For over 3500 years, artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the Old Kingdom, following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change. These artistic standards—simple lines, shapes, and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depth—created a sense of order and balance within a composition. The ancient Egyptians made little distinction between images and text, which were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls, coffins, stelae, and even statues. This mentality is evident even in the earliest examples of Egyptian art, such as the Narmer Palette, where the figures being depicted may also be read as hieroglyphs. Because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance, ancient Egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity.

Pharaohs used reliefs carved on stelae, temple walls, and obelisks to record victories in battle, royal decrees, and religious scenes. These art forms glorified the pharaoh, recorded that ruler's version of historical events, and established the relationship between the Egyptians and their deities. Common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art, such as shabti statues and books of the dead, which they believed would protect them in the afterlife. During the Middle Kingdom, wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb. In an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife, these models show laborers, houses, boats, and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient Egyptian afterlife.

During the turbulent times of the Late Period, artists—or more likely their patrons—sought to reinforce continuity with their historical predecessors and enhance their political legitimacy by adopting an "archaising" style. Copying the unique style of the Old Kingdom, artists carved statues and reliefs sometimes indistinguishable from objects created some 2,000 years earlier. In this Saite style, poses, hairstyles, musculature, and composition were heavily influenced from the past. Artists did have some room for innovation, however, as they adapted historic themes and patterns to Late Period uses.

Despite the homogeneity of ancient Egyptian art, the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes. After the invasion of the Hyksos in the Second Intermediate Period, Minoan-style frescoes were found in Avaris, suggesting political and cultural connections with Crete. The most striking example, however, comes from the Amarna period, where the appearance of the royal figure and artistic subject matter were radically altered to conform to Akhenaten's revolutionary religious ideas. In Amarna art, The pharaoh was depicted with swelling thighs and an oblong head in shocking contrast to traditional motifs. There is no secure explanation why Akhenaten allowed himself to be portrayed in this fashion, but he may have been trying to show himself with both male and female characteristics. The standard religious scenes were replaced by those of the royal family worshipping the Aten, which, along with Akhenaten himself, had become the central focus of the new religion. After Akhenaten's death, the new art forms and religion were quickly and thoroughly erased, and replaced by the traditional forms.

Religious beliefs

Beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in the ancient Egyptian civilization from its inception; pharaonic rule was based on the doctrine of the divine right of kings. The Egyptian pantheon was populated by a diverse array of gods who had supernatural, although sometimes limited, powers and were called on for help or protection. However, the gods were not always viewed as benevolent, and Egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers. The structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy, but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting creation myths and stories into a coherent system.

Officially, the gods were worshiped in cult temples by priests acting on the king's behalf. At the center of the temple, the cult statue of the god was placed in a shrine where the god could manifest himself. Temples were not places of public worship or congregation, and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship. Normally, the god's domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials; common citizens seeking a more direct interaction with the gods could worship private statues and stelae in the home, and amulets offered continuous, personal protection against the forces of chaos.

After the New Kingdom, the pharaoh's connection to the divine, and thus his role as a spiritual intermediary, were de-emphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods. As a result, priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people. An oracle could be a statue of the god that could be asked a yes or no question, to which it would "respond" by hidden manipulations of a priest; the priests could also pose questions to the oracle behind closed doors. Oracles became very popular for appealing legal verdicts or for justifying military actions and political decisions.

The Egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts, called aspects. In addition to the body, each person had a šwt (shadow), a ba (personality or soul), a ka (life-force), and a name. The heart, rather than the brain, was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions. After death, the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will, but they required the physical remains (or a substitute, such as a statue) as a permanent home. The ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the "blessed dead", living on as an akh, or "effective one". In order for this to happen, the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial, in which the heart was weighed against a "feather of truth". If deemed worthy, the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form.

Burial customs

The ancient Egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death. These customs involved preserving the body by mummification, performing burial ceremonies, and interring, along with the body, goods to be used by the deceased in the afterlife.

Before the Old Kingdom, bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation. The arid, desert conditions continued to be a boon throughout the history of ancient Egypt for the burials of the poor, who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite. However, many wealthier Egyptians lost the advantage of natural mummification by the desert when they began to bury their dead in stone tombs. As a result, the wealthy elite of the Old and Middle Kingdoms began to make use of artificial mummification, which involved removing the internal organs, wrapping the body in linen, coating it with plaster or resin, and sometimes painting or sculpting facial details. The body was then buried in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin. Beginning in the Fourth Dynasty, the intestines, lungs, liver, and stomach were preserved separately in canopic jars and symbolically protected by likenesses of the Four sons of Horus.

By the New Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had perfected the art of mummification; the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs, removing the brain through the nose, and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron. The body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin. Mummies of the Late Period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases. Actual preservation practices declined during the Ptolemaic and Roman eras, while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy, which was decorated with elaborate rhomboidal patterns formed by the wrapping bandages.

Wealthy members of society were buried with larger quantities of luxury items and furniture, but all burials, regardless of social status, included goods for the deceased, such as food and jewelry. Beginning in the New Kingdom, books of the dead were included in the grave and contained spells and instructions for protection in the afterlife. New Kingdom Egyptians were also buried with shabti statues, which they believed would perform manual labor for them in the afterlife.

All Egyptian burials were accompanied by rituals in which the deceased was magically re-animated. This procedure involved touching the mouth and eyes of the deceased with ceremonial instruments to restore the power of speech, movement, and sight. After burial, living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased.

Foreign relations

Trade

The ancient Egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare, exotic goods not found in Egypt. In the Predynastic Period, they established trade with Nubia to obtain gold and incense. They also established trade with Palestine, as evidenced by Palestinian-style oil jugs found in the burials of the First Dynasty pharaohs. By the Second Dynasty, the ancient Egyptians had established trade with Byblos, a critical source of quality timber not found in Egypt. In the Fifth Dynasty, trade was established with the Land of Punt, which provided gold, aromatic resins, ebony, ivory, and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons.

Egypt relied on trade with Anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper, both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze. The ancient Egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli, which had to be imported from far-away Afghanistan. Egypt's Mediterranean trade partners also included Greece and Crete, which provided, among other goods, supplies of olive oil. In exchange for its luxury imports and raw materials, Egypt mainly exported grain, gold, linen, and papyrus, in addition to other finished goods including glass and stone objects.

Military

The ancient Egyptian military was responsible for maintaining Egypt's domination in the ancient Near East. The military protected mining expeditions to the Sinai during the Old Kingdom and fought civil wars during the First and Second Intermediate Periods. The military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes, such as those found at the city of Buhen on the way to Nubia. Forts also were constructed to serve as military bases, such as the fortress at Sile, which was a base of operations for expeditions to the Levant. In the New Kingdom, a series of pharaohs used the standing Egyptian army to attack and conquer Kush and parts of the Levant.

Typical military equipment included bows and arrows, spears, and round-topped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame. In the New Kingdom, the military began using chariots that were introduced by the Hyksos invaders of the Second Intermediate Period. Weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze: shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle, spears were tipped with a bronze point, and a type of scimitar made of bronze, the Khopesh, was adopted from Asian soldiers.

The Egyptian pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army, and there is evidence that at least a few pharaohs, such as Seqenenre Tao II and his sons, did do so. Soldiers were recruited from the general population, but during, and especially after, the New Kingdom, mercenaries from Nubia, Kush, and Libya were hired to fight for Egypt while under the command of their own officers.

Technology, medicine, and mathematics

In technology, medicine and mathematics, ancient Egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication. Traditional empiricism, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri (c. 1600 BC), is first credited to Egypt, and the roots of the scientific method can also be traced back to the ancient Egyptians. The Egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system.

Faience and glass

Even before the Old Kingdom, the ancient Egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience, which they treated as a type of artificial semi-precious stone. Faience is a non-clay ceramic made of silica, small amounts of lime and soda, and a colorant, typically copper. The material was used to make beads, tiles, figurines, and small wares. Several methods can be used to create faience, but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core, which was then fired. By a related technique, the ancient Egyptians produced a pigment known as Egyptian Blue, also called blue frit, which is produced by fusing (or sintering) silica, copper, lime, and an alkali such as natron. The product can be ground up and used as a pigment. The ancient Egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill, but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently. It is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported pre-made ingots, which they melted and finished. However, they did have technical expertise in making objects, as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass. A range of colors could be produced, including yellow, red, green, blue, purple, and white, and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque.

Medicine

The medical problems of the ancient Egyptians stemmed directly from their environment. Living and working close to the Nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites, which caused liver and intestinal damage. Dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat. The life-long labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints, and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on ancient Egyptians. The grit and sand from stone-ground flour abraded teeth, leaving them susceptible to abscesses (though caries were rare). The diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars, which promoted periodontal disease. Despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls, the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence. Life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women, but reaching adulthood was difficult as about one-third of the population died in infancy.

Ancient Egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient Near East for their healing skills. Herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among Egyptian physicians, with some treating only the head or the stomach, while others were eye-doctors and dentists. One of the earliest Egyptian physicians who came to have profound influence on the history of Egyptian medicine was Imhotep. Training of physicians took place at the Per Ankh or the House of Life institution, most notably those headquartered in Per-Bastet during the New Kingdom and at Abydos and Saïs in the Late period. Medical papyri show empirical knowledge of the human anatomy, injuries, including different types of fractures, and how to treat them. Wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat, white linen, sutures, nets, pads and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection, while opium was used to relieve pain. Garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms. Ancient Egyptian surgeons stitched wounds, set broken bones, and amputated diseased limbs, but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until he died.

Mathematics

Understanding of Egyptian mathematics is far from complete, in part due to paucity of available material, in addition to lack of exhaustive study of the texts that have been uncovered. The earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic Naqada period. They show the same numbering system that was later used throughout dynastic Egyptian history. The importance of mathematics to an educated Egyptian is suggested by a New Kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding the mathematical knowledge required to undertake everyday tasks such as accounting of land, labor and grain.

Texts such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus and the Kahun Papyrus show that the ancient Egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operations—addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division—use fractions, compute the volumes of boxes and pyramids, and calculate the surface areas of rectangles, triangles, circles and even spheres. They understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry, and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations.

2⁄3 in hieroglyphs

Mathematical notation was decimal, and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million. Each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number; so to write the number eighty or eight hundred, the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively. Because ancient Egyptian methods of calculation could not handle fractions with a numerator greater than one (except for very common fractions such as 2⁄3 and 3⁄4), these types of fractions had to be written as the sum of several fractions. For example, the fraction 2⁄5 was resolved into the sum of 1⁄3 + 1⁄15; this was facilitated by standard tables of values. Some common fractions, however, were written with a special glyph; the equivalent of the modern 2⁄3 is shown on the right.

The Egyptians had a grasp of the principles underlying the Pythagorean theorem such that they knew that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were of a 3-4-5 ratio. They were able to get very close to the value of the area of a circle by subtracting 1⁄9 of its diameter and squaring the result. In modern notation, this would be expressed as Area ≈ , yielding a result of 256⁄81 ≈ 3.16 as compared to the modern approximation 3.14. The golden ratio seems to be reflected in many Egyptian constructions, including the pyramids, but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient Egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony.

Legacy

The culture and monuments of ancient Egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world. The cult of the goddess Isis, for example, became popular in the Roman empire, as obelisks and other relics were transported back to Rome. The Romans also imported building materials from Egypt to erect structures in Egyptian style. Early historians such as Herodotus, Strabo, Diodorus Siculus and Pliny the Elder were fascinated by Egypt and studied and wrote about the land, which became viewed as a place full of arcane mysteries and ruined monuments.

During the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, the monuments of Egypt lay buried in sand as the pagan culture of ancient Egypt was in decline after the rise of Christianity and later Islam. Interest in Egyptian antiquity continued, however, in Islamic Egypt as evidenced in the writings of medieval scholars such as Dhul-Nun al-Misri and al-Maqrizi.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, European travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys. Such published accounts stimulated a wave of Egyptomania that swept across Europe, as all things Egyptian came into vogue. This renewed interest sent a surge of travelers and museum collectors into Egypt, who took, purchased, or were given many important antiquities.

Although collectors during the European colonial occupation of Egypt destroyed a significant portion of the country's historical legacy, many larger programs had more positive results. Napoleon, for example, arranged the first scientific studies in Egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document Egypt's natural history, which was published in the Description de l'Ėgypte, a work of more than 7,000 pages and 3,000 drawings. The decipherment of hieroglyphs in 1822 was also a great step in the modern scientific investigation of ancient Egyptian civilization.

Since the 19th century, the Egyptian Government and archaeologists alike have begun to recognize the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations. The Supreme Council of Antiquities now approves and oversees all excavations, which are aimed at finding information rather than treasure. The council also supervises museums and monument reconstruction programs, designed to preserve the historical legacy of ancient Egypt, and share this knowledge with the world.

Notes and references

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35. Shaw (2002) p. 146
36. Clayton (1994) p. 29
37. Shaw (2002) p. 148
38. Clayton (1994) p. 79
39. Shaw (2002) p. 158
40. Shaw (2002) p. 179–82
41. Shaw (2002) p. 146
42. Robins (1997) p. 90
43. Shaw (2002) p. 188
44. Ryholt (1997) p. 310
45. Shaw (2002) p. 189
46. Ryholt (1997) p. 310
47. Shaw (2002) p. 224
48. James (2005) p. 48
49. "Hatshepsut". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2007-12-09.
50. Clayton (1994) p. 108
51. Aldred (1988) p. 259
52. Cline (2001) p. 273
53. From his two principal wives and large harem, Ramesses II sired more than 100 children. Clayton (1994) p. 146
54. Tyldesley (2001) p. 76–7
55. James (2005) p. 54
56. James (2005) p. 54
57. Cerny (1975) p. 645
58. Shaw (2002) p. 345
59. Shaw (2002) p. 358
60. Shaw (2002) p. 383
61. Shaw (2002) p. 385
62. Shaw (2002) p. 405
63. Shaw (2002) p. 411
64. Shaw (2002) p. 418
65. James (2005) p. 62
66. James (2005) p. 63
67. Shaw (2002) p. 426
68. Shaw (2002) p. 422
69. Shaw (2002) p. 422
70. Shaw (2002) p. 441
71. Shaw (2002) p. 445
72. Manuelian (1998) p. 358
73. Manuelian (1998) p. 363
74. Meskell (2004) p. 23
75. Manuelian (1998) p. 372
76. Manuelian (1998) p. 372
77. Manuelian (1998) p. 372
78. Walbank (1984) p. 125
79. Manuelian (1998) p. 383
80. James (2005) p. 136
81. Billard (1978) p. 109
82. "Social classes in ancient Egypt". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2007-12-11.
83. ^ Janet H. Johnson. "Women's Legal Rights in Ancient Egypt". University of Chicago. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
84. Manuelian (1998) p. 358
85. Manuelian (1998) p. 358
86. Oakes (2003) p. 472
87. Manuelian (1998) p. 358
88. Manuelian (1998) p. 358
89. McDowell (1999) p. 168
90. Manuelian (1998) p. 361
91. Nicholson (2000) p. 514
92. Nicholson (2000) p. 506
93. Nicholson (2000) p. 510
94. Nicholson (2000) p. 577 and 630
95. Strouhal (1989) p. 117
96. Manuelian (1998) p. 381
97. Nicholson (2000) p. 409
98. Manuelian (1998) p. 381
99. Manuelian (1998) p. 381
100. Strouhal (1989) p. 117
101. Oakes (2003) p. 229
102. Greaves (1929) p. 123
103. Lucas (1962) p. 413
104. Nicholson (2000) p. 28
105. Scheel (1989) p. 14
106. Nicholson (2000) p. 166
107. Nicholson (2000) p. 51
108. Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137
109. Loprieno (2004) p. 161
110. Loprieno (2004) p. 161
111. Loprieno (2004) p. 162
112. Loprieno (1995b) p. 2137
113. Loprieno (1995b) p. 2138
114. Vittman (1991) pp. 197–227
115. Loprieno (1995a) p. 46
116. Loprieno (1995a) p. 74
117. Loprieno (2004) p. 175
118. Allen (2000) pp. 48, 202
119. Allen (2000) pp. 67, 70, 109
120. Loprieno (2005) p. 2147
121. Loprieno (2004) p. 173
122. Allen (2000) p. 13
123. Allen (2000) p. 13
124. Allen (2000) p. 7
125. Loprieno (2004) p. 166
126. El-Daly (2005) p. 164
127. Allen (2000) p. 8
128. Strouhal (1989) p. 235
129. Lichtheim (1975) p. 11
130. Lichtheim (1975) p. 215
131. Lichtheim (1980) p. 159
132. Manuelian (1998) p. 401
133. Manuelian (1998) p. 403
134. Manuelian (1998) p. 405
135. Manuelian (1998) p. 406–7
136. Manuelian (1998) p. 399–400
137. "Music in Ancient Egypt". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
138. Manuelian (1998) p. 126
139. Clarke (1990) p. 94–7
140. Badawy (1968) pp. 46–47
141. Badawy (1968) p. 50
142. Clarke (1990) p. 136
143. Stierlin (1995) p. 19
144. Dodson (1991) p. 23
145. Bard (1999) p. 205
146. "Types of temples in ancient Egypt". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
147. Robins (1997) p. 29
148. Robins (1997) p. 21
149. Robins (2001) p. 12
150. James (2005) p. 122
151. Robins (1998) p. 74
152. Robins (1998) p. 212
153. Robins (1998) p. 212
154. Shaw (2002) p. 216
155. Robins (1998) p. 149
156. Robins (1998) p. 158
157. James (2005) p. 102
158. James (2005) p. 117
159. Andrews (1994) p. 6
160. Shaw (2002) p. 313
161. Shaw (2002) p. 313
162. Allen (2000) p. 79, 94–5
163. Wasserman, et al (1994) p. 150–3
164. James (2005) p. 122
165. "Mummies and Mummification: Old Kingdom". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
166. "Mummies and Mummification: Late Period, Ptolemaic, Roman and Christian Period". Digital Egypt for Universities, University College London. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
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169. Shaw (2002) p. 72
170. Shaw (2002) p. 322
171. Manuelian (1998) p. 145
172. Harris (1990) p. 13
173. Shaw (2002) p. 245
174. Manuelian (1998) p. 366–7
175. Clayton (1994) p. 96
176. Shaw (2002) p. 400
177. Nicholson (2000) p. 177
178. Nicholson (2000) p. 109
179. Nicholson (2000) p. 195
180. Nicholson (2000) p. 215
181. Filer (1995) p. 94
182. Filer (1995) p. 78–80
183. Filer (1995) p. 21
184. Filer (1995) p. 25
185. Filer (1995) p. 39
186. Strouhal (1989) p. 243
187. Stroual (1989) p. 244–46
188. Stroual (1989) p. 250
189. "Edwin Smith Surgical Papyrus Translation". Retrieved 2008-03-01.
190. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 7
191. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 13
192. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 11
193. Clarke (1990) p. 222
194. Clarke (1990) p. 217
195. Clarke (1990) p. 218
196. Gardiner (1957) p. 197
197. Strouhal (1989) p. 241
198. Imhausen et al. (2007) p. 31
199. Strouhal (1989) p. 241
200. "The Egyptian Pyramids - Mathematics and the Liberal Arts". Truman State University. Retrieved 2008-03-09.
201. Kemp (1989) p. 138
202. Siliotti (1998) p. 8
203. Siliotti (1998) p. 10
204. El-Daly (2005) p. 112
205. Siliotti (1998) p. 13
206. Siliotti (1998) p. 100

Bibliography

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• Imhausen, Annette (2007). The Mathematics of Egypt, Mesopotamia, China, India, and Islam: A Sourcebook. Princeton: Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-11485-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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External links

• Ancient Egypt – maintained by the British Museum, this site provides a useful introduction to Ancient Egypt for older children and young adolescents
• BBC History: Egyptians – provides a reliable general overview and further links
• Texts from the Pyramid Age Door Nigel C. Strudwick, Ronald J. Leprohon, 2005, Brill Academic Publishers
• Ancient Egyptian Science: A Source Book Door Marshall Clagett, 1989
• Digital Egypt for Universities. Outstanding scholarly treatment with broad coverage and excellent cross references (internal and external). Artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics.
• Ancient Egyptian Metallurgy A site that shows the history of Egyptian metalworking

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