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This article is about the British Special Air Service. For other Special Air Services, see Australian Special Air Service Regiment and Special Air Service of New Zealand.

The Special Air Service (SAS) is the principal special forces organisation of the British Army and one of the most famous military organisations in the world, because of its outstanding success in many world wide operations. Formed in 1941 to conduct raids behind German lines in North Africa, it today serves as a model for similar units fielded by many other countries. The SAS is the smallest and most secretive regiment in the British Army, but attracts a disproportionate amount of media coverage. Its Royal Marines counterpart is the Special Boat Service (SBS).

Organisation

At present, there are three separate regiments within the SAS, as well as a flight of the Army Air Corps (AAC) and two squadrons of the Royal Corps of Signals, which support the SAS and consist of a mixture of SAS-trained and non-SAS-trained personnel. The regular army element of the SAS is 22 SAS Regiment, supported by two Territorial Army (TA) regiments, 21 SAS Regiment and 23 SAS Regiment, known as the SAS(R). All SAS members have to pass a rigorous selection procedure, but due to the part-time nature of the TA, the selection process for members of 21 SAS and 23 SAS is stretched over a period of over a year.

The three regiments have different roles: the TA regiments specialise in Close Target Reconnaissance (CTR), while 22 SAS performs a wider range of tasks also including Counter Revolutionary Warfare (CRW), Counter Terrorism (CT) and acting as a Quick Reaction Force (QRF). The relationship between the regiments is close, with members of 22 SAS routinely being attached to the SAS(R). During the 1980s, the Director of the SAS, Brigadier Peter de la Billière, established a rule that an officer or senior NCO in 22 SAS who wished to gain rank had to serve time with the SAS(R). In support, not just of the SAS, but also of the other UKSF units is the newly formed 18 Signal Regiment. A further unit is 8 Flight, Army Air Corps, which is assigned to support 22 SAS.

22 SAS also has a Headquarters, Planning and Intelligence Section, Operational (Ops) Research Section, CRW Wing, and Training Wing.

Each Sabre Squadron is divided into four 16-man Troops with different responsibilities (Air Troop, Boat Troop, Mobility Troop, and Mountain Troop).

The CRW Wing is made up of one squadron, which rotates every 6-9 months. The squadron is split up into two troops:

• Red Troop (Air and Mountain Troops)
• Blue Troop (Boat and Mobility Troops)

Each of the two troops is made up of an assault group and a sniper team.

The SAS has been based at Hereford in the west of England for many years. Stirling Lines, named after David Stirling, was initially the home of the Regiment but in 1999 they moved to a former RAF base at Credenhill on the outskirts of Hereford.

Function

The role the SAS plays in modern warfare includes:

• Intelligence gathering missions behind enemy lines.
• Long range insertions to destroy multiple targets.
• Close quarter protection and bodyguarding (BGing) of senior British dignitaries.
• Taking part in CRW operations when a police unit such as SO19 does not have the capabilities.
• Conducting missions in areas without official British Government involvement.
• Training special forces of other nationalities.
• Counter-Terrorism Operations at home and abroad

Selection and Training

Commanding Officer (CO) Major John Woodhouse introduced SAS Selection in 1952. Before that, troopers had earned their credentials in the field.

SAS Selection and Training is the most demanding military training course in the British Army and is also said to be the most demanding in the world: it reputedly only has a pass rate of 2-10%. It is the ultimate test of strength, endurance, and resolve over the Brecon Beacons and Elan Valley in Wales, and in the jungle of Brunei. The Namib Desert is also used as a desert training ground. 'Selection' takes around 6 months to complete.

Selection is held twice a year regardless of conditions. A candidate must be male and have been a regular soldier in the British Army or RAF Regiment for at least three years or a member of 21 SAS or 23 SAS (which can be joined directly from civilian life) for at least 18 months. All soldiers who apply must have at least 39 months of military service remaining. A candidate who fails any stage of the selection is 'Returned to Unit' (RTU'd). Candidates are allowed only two attempts at selection, after which they may never reapply.

Like other sections of the British armed forces, the SAS accepts members from the Commonwealth, with notable representation from Fiji, the former Rhodesia, New Zealand and Australia. The Parachute Regiment is the SAS's main recruiting area.

Special Forces Briefing Course (2 days)

Over a weekend, potential candidates are shown what life in the United Kingdom Special Forces (UKSF) is like and are briefed on what to expect during selection. There is a map and compass test, a swimming test, a first aid test and a combat fitness test.

Fitness and Navigation (4 weeks)

After filing a Defence Council Instruction (DCI) stating that he is prepared for arduous duties, a soldier begins selection. The first part of selection is held in the Brecon Beacons and Elan Valley. The weather there can be unpredictable and a couple of soldiers have died during selection, mainly due to hypothermia or exposure. The actual selection starts with the Battle Fitness Test (BFT), a 2.5km run in under 13 minutes, and then the same distance run alone in under 11½ minutes. The first week mostly consists of runs in the neighbourhood, up and down hills with a small load in the bergen. Lessons in navigation and map reading are included. Navigation runs in small groups in woodland areas and night tabs follow shortly. The load in the bergen gets heavier and an SA80 rifle with no slings has to be carried. Soldiers have to keep the rifle in their hands as they climb up the slopes and jog down again. In the third week navigation is solo from grid reference to other points on the map. At each rendezvous point (RVP), the soldiers have to indicate where they are before the next grid reference is given. The soldiers are not told how long the run is and where they will end up. In the last week, there is a race against the clock every day, with each task more punishing as the distances and load of the bergen increase. The "Long Drag" is the last ultimate test - about 40 miles over the mountains in between 20 and 24 hours depending on the weather.

Initial Continuation Training (4 weeks)

This consists of detailed and realistic training in weapons handling, demolitions and small patrol tactics. Those who are not already parachute qualified are also trained in this skill. On completion of SAS parachute training, soldiers are awarded SAS Wings, worn at the top of the right sleeve.

Jungle Training (6 weeks)

Soldiers are divided into patrols of four and are watched over day and night by Directing Staff (DS). Soldiers must stand to for one hour at dawn and one hour at dusk every day without fail and must also keep their knife with them at all times. After lessons in navigation through dense jungle, boat handling, camp building and jungle contact drills there is a final test, where all things that have been learned must be applied correctly. Soldiers will learn to live, fight and survive in the jungle, and will have to take care of every cut, scratch, blister, and even eating equipment, as it could easily get infected. The rain is almost constant, which further demoralises the candidates.

Combat Survival (4 weeks)

There is another month of training in survival skills, living off the land and using escape and evasion (E & E) tactics. There are lessons and lectures in interrogation techniques from people who have been Prisoners of War (POWs). The last few days is the E & E stage. In groups the soldiers are dressed in greatcoats to slow them down and have to evade capture from the Hunter Force, which is usually comprised of Parachute Regiment or Gurkha soldiers. When captured, every soldier has to withstand tactical questioning (TQ). The soldiers are blindfolded, put in stress positions, subjected to white noise, dehydrated and given no food. The soldiers are only allowed to respond to questions with:

• Name
• Rank
• Number
• Date of birth
• "I'm sorry I cannot answer that question"

In practice, soldiers are also allowed to tell their captors their religion, blood type and previous medical history. If they break during TQ then they are RTU'd.

Passing Selection

After passing selection, soldiers lose any previous rank and become troopers. They have to work their way up again from the lowest rank, but revert to their original rank (with appropriate increases in rank for length of service) if they ever leave the SAS. Officers, who must hold a minimum rank of captain, do not lose their rank but may only serve a three-year tour with the SAS. Officers are allowed to do a second three-year tour providing they pass selection again.

Specialist Training

Specialist training includes:

• First Aid, to a fairly high level, with stints in busy hospitals, including a week in a mortuary
• Signals
• HALO (High Altitude, Low Opening)
• HAHO (High Altitude, High Opening)
• Sniping - all SAS snipers are trained by the Royal Marines at the Sniper course at CTCRM (Commando Training Centre Royal Marines)
• Languages
• Vehicle Operating Skills
• CRW Training
• Explosive Method of Entry (EMOE)

Secrecy

Upon entry into the regiment, troopers have to abide by strict rules, such as not telling anyone other than close family that they are a member of the SAS. Anonymity is also provided whilst serving in the SAS. Troopers also may not give names and information to any police authority whilst co-operating. Troopers have the right to a 24-hour 'warm down' after any firefight and do not have to give evidence to the police during this period. If a medal is given to a member of the SAS, such as the Military Cross (MC), the soldier is listed in the media as being in their parent regiment and not the SAS. If an SAS trooper is killed in action (KIA), and if it can be avoided, the information is not made public, and if it is unavoidable then the parent regiment is again listed and not the SAS. After leaving the SAS, ex-members may not give details of unofficial or 'black bag' operations. Ex-members of the regiment often use pseudonyms such as Andy McNab. The British Government makes no official announcements concerning the SAS and when reports are given there is no mention of the SAS. The Ministry of Defence (MoD) has a standing policy of not discussing the SAS or its operations.

Insignia

The SAS, like every other British regiment, has its own distinctive unit insignia.

• Sand-coloured beret (sometimes called the beige beret; the SAS do not wear the peaked cap)
• Cap badge - the badge is actually meant to depict the flaming Sword of Damocles (the sword of retribution) or Excalibur, not a winged dagger as it is usually called, but the misinterpretation is now universally accepted
• SAS parachute wings (different from those used by the rest of the Army)
• Silver regimental collar pins (collar dogs)
• Royal blue stable belt
• Silver belt buckle with engraved regimental badge

1941-1945

The SAS was founded by then Lieutenant David Stirling during World War II. It was originally created to conduct raids and sabotage far behind enemy lines in the desert, and operated in conjunction with the existing Long Range Desert Group (LRDG). Stirling (formerly of No.8 Commando) looked for recruits with rugged individualism and initiative and recruited specialists from Layforce and other units. The name "Special Air Service" was already in use as a deception.

Their first mission, parachuting behind enemy lines in support of General Sir Claude Auchinleck's attack in November 1941, was a disaster. Only 22 out of 62 troopers reached the rendezvous point (RVP). Stirling still managed to organise another assault against the German airfields at Aqedabia, Site and Agheila, this time transported by the LRDG. They destroyed 61 enemy aircraft without a single casualty. 1st SAS earned regimental status and Lieutenant Stirling's brother Bill began to organise a second regiment, 2 SAS.

During the desert war the SAS performed many successful and daring long range insertion missions and destroyed aircraft and fuel depots. Their success contributed towards Hitler issuing his Kommandobefehl order to execute all captured Commandos. When the Germans stepped up security, the SAS switched to hit-and-run tactics. They used jeeps armed with Vickers K machine guns and used tracer ammunition to ignite fuel and aircraft. They took part in Operation Torch.

David Stirling was captured by the Italians in January 1943 and he spent the rest of the war as a prisoner of war in Colditz Castle. His brother Bill Stirling and Blair 'Paddy' Mayne took command of the SAS.

The SAS were used in the invasion of Italy. At the toe of Italy they took the first prisoners of the campaign before heading deeper into Italy. At one point four groups were active deep behind enemy lines laying waste to airfields, attacking convoys and derailing trains. Towards the end of the campaign Italian guerrillas and escaped Russian prisoners were enlisted into an "Allied SAS Battalion" which struck at Kesselring's main lines of communications. In 1945 Major Farran made one of the most effective raids of the war. His force raided the German Fifth Corps headquarters burning the buildings to the ground and killing the General and some of his staff.

Prior to the Normandy Invasion, SAS men were inserted into France as 4-man teams to help maquisards of the French Resistance. In a reversal of their by now customary tactics, they often travelled during the day, when Allied fighter bombers drove enemy traffic off the roads and then ambushed enemy troops moving in convoy under the cover of darkness. In Operation Houndsmith, 144 SAS troopers parachuted with jeeps and supplies into Dijon, France. During and after D-Day they continued their raids against fuel depots, communications centres and railways. They did suffer casualties—at one stage the Germans executed 24 SAS troopers and a US Army Air Force pilot. At the end of the war, the SAS hunted down SS and Gestapo officers. By that time the SAS had been expanded to five regiments, of which two were French and one Belgian.

1946-1979

After the war, the British War Office did not entirely disband the SAS regiments, but the French and Belgians returned to their own countries. The British SAS was no longer a regular army unit but TA unit 21 SAS still existed. However, in April 1948, the Malay Races Liberation Army began an insurrection which transformed into the Malayan Emergency. Two years later Brigadier Mike Calvert practically re-created the SAS as a commando unit reminiscent of jungle troops like Chindits. 21 SAS was redeployed from the Korean War and sent to Malaya. Many other members were recruited from the original SAS, other units, Rhodesia, and even army prisons. The intended unit name "Malay Scouts" was scrapped for the reborn SAS.

Training new recruits took time. They learned tracking skills from Iban soldiers from Borneo. They began to patrol in teams of 2 or 4 men. Less than sanitary conditions forced them to learn first aid. They also learned local languages and respect for the local customs and culture. Patrol periods in the jungle were progressively extended to three months. Soldiers unsuitable for jungle warfare were RTU'd. At that stage some troopers were armed with pump-action shotguns. They also earned the respect of some of the indigenes by helping them. By the end of 1955 there were 5 SAS squadrons in Malaya. They stayed in mopping up operations until the end of 1958.

Many other missions followed. The SAS fought anti-sultan rebels in Jebel Akhdar, Oman in 1958-1959. They fought Indonesian-supported "guerillas" during the Indonesia-Malaysia confrontation in Borneo, Brunei and Sarawak in 1963-1966. They also tried to pacify the situation in Aden in 1964-1967 before the withdrawal of British troops. They fought against another insurrection in Dhofar, Oman in 1970-1977.

Most of these deployments were unofficial. Membership, missions, and the whole existence of SAS became a secret. The SAS's role was expanded to bodyguard (BG) training and CT work. They also began to work in civilian clothes on missions unless they could use uniforms of some other unit as a disguise. The British Secretary of State for Defence still does not discuss the SAS or its operations.

1980-2001

On 30 April 1980, six Iranian terrorists took over the Iranian Embassy in Princes Gate, London. After six days of unsuccesful negotations and one hostage's murder, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher ordered an assault. At 19:26 on Monday 5 April, the SAS went in. More than thirty troopers entered the building, including some who went in across a balcony filmed live for the BBC. A diversionary attack was staged and other troopers went in through the ground floor. One hostage was killed by the terrorists, but within minutes the terrorist threat had been eliminated, with five of the six having been killed and one captured. Of the original 24 hostages, 22 were safe. The operation was hailed as a great success and was to change the way the public viewed the regiment.

During the Falklands War of 1982, SAS teams worked alongside the SBS in many operations before the main force landings at San Carlos and after the landings ahead of the Forward Edge of Battle Area (FEBA). These included operations in South Georgia, guiding Harrier attacks on Port Stanley airport to destroy Argentine helicopters, and the destruction of eleven Pucará attack aircraft on Pebble Island. During the war, 22 SAS, under the command of Lieutenant-Colonel Mike Rose, were the only land unit that had their own satellite communications back to the UK.

In 1987 Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher ordered an SAS team into the high-security prison at Peterhead, Scotland. A rebellion by inmates had resulted in one of the prison officers being taken captive. The soldiers were armed with staves and entered the building by way of a skylight. After violently subduing the inmates, the prison officer was freed and the operation ended. Some time after the incident, the Prison Service relaxed it's zero tolerance attitude to drug use in that prison.

In the Gulf War of 1991, the SAS's role was similar to their forerunners in World War II: they deployed deep into Iraqi territory to gather intelligence and destroy mobile Scud missile launchers. They did the job with anything from explosives to jackhammers. Perhaps the most famous mission of the war, known as Bravo Two Zero, was popularised by books written by two participants in the mission. Their accounts describe an eight-man SAS patrol cut off deep in Iraq during a scud-busting raid. Discovered by the Iraqis, they supposedly fought their way to the Syrian border over a distance of 120 miles, killing around 250 Iraqi soldiers along the way. Four members of the patrol were captured and tortured, and three were killed in action. Corporal Chris Ryan managed to escape across the border to Syria. The accounts written by the survivors have received some severe criticism from former members of the SAS.

Some troopers (officially former members of the Regiment) fought in the Vietnam War and helped the Mujahideen in Afghanistan during the Soviet invasion. There was also official SAS training of Mujahideen in Scotland in the 1980s, with particular emphasis on shooting down Russian helicopters. Some ex-members have also become mercenaries or private military contractors.

In September 2000, members of D Squadron were tasked with the hostage rescue of six members of the Royal Irish Regiment and one Sierra Leonean corporal in Sierra Leone. The operation was called Operation Barras. The soldiers had been taken hostage by the West Side Boys, led by Foday Kallay, and were held in the dense jungle in western Sierra Leone. Alongside the SAS, A Company of 1st Battalion, Parachute Regiment fought in the battle. Twelve British soldiers were wounded in the operation and one trooper was killed. The operation was a great success and many rebel leaders were captured; not long after, the West Side Boys had all but been defeated.

2002-2005

After the September 11, 2001 attacks, the SAS, along with the Australian SAS, were involved in operations in Afghanistan. When Taliban and Al-Qaeda prisoners tried to escape, the SAS was reportedly called in to assist in their capture. The SAS also rescued two CIA men who were trapped behind enemy lines. Operation Trent employed half the Regiment in a successful attack on an $85,000,000 opium storage plant in Helmand province, which doubled as an Al-Qaeda local command centre.

Roman Abramovich's luxury yacht Ecstasea (launched in 2004) is rumoured to have an ex-SAS crew.

On 30 January 2005, an RAF Hercules crashed near Baghdad, killing ten British servicemen. The plane had just dropped off fifty memebrs of G Squadron north of Baghdad for an operation to combat the increased insurgency.

On 22 July 2005, the SAS were reported by The Sunday Times to have aided in intelligence gathering and surveillance for the Metropolitan Police which resulted in the shooting of Jean Charles de Menezes. Following on from the 21 July attacks in London, on 29 July 2005 the SAS assisted in an operation to capture some of the terrorists who are believed to have carried out the attempted attacks. The SAS were seen arriving in unmarked vehicles and wore balaclavas throught the operation to conceal their identity. One of the troopers was photographed in a CRW uniform with what is belived to be a Blue Troop patch. The SAS helped with storming the flats in West London and are believed to have fired several shots in the process.

Northern Ireland

In Northern Ireland, the SAS was involved from the early days in what became known as 'The Troubles', which started in 1969. Indeed, in the early days of The Troubles they operated openly in uniform wearing the SAS sand-coloured beret with the winged dagger cap badge. They were involved in several incidents in which unarmed IRA members (including a woman) were killed, most notably at Loughgall and Gibraltar - Operation Flavius (some argue that this was mitigated by the IRA killing of off-duty British soldiers and RUC men). Since the official reason for British army deployment in Northern Ireland was to provide support for the Royal Ulster Constabulary, killings by the SAS generated some controversy. In 1977, Captain Robert Nairac, an undercover SAS officer, was abducted, tortured then beaten to death in Armagh by a low-level IRA operative and his friends who had begun to suspect him after overhearing him in a bar.

In the Northern Ireland Troubles the SAS were given priority in the intelligence pecking order and supplied the most credible or 'hard' intelligence. This gave the SAS occasional opportunities in a Counter Revolutionary Operations (CRO) campaign to act proactively and aggressively by laying ambushes and placing Covert Observation Posts (COPs). SAS actions were almost always directed against the IRA, with some against the smaller INLA. Many SAS men, although forbidden to follow suspects into the Republic of Ireland, nevertheless did so. Some were caught and arrested by Irish police. Controversially, they were rarely charged with firearms offences, but were returned to the British authorities (although a Dublin court once fined eight SAS men £100 each). In March 1976, Seán MacKenna, an IRA commander, was abducted from his home in the Republic by the SAS and handed over to a British Army patrol once across the border.

Lesser quality intelligence was supplied to infantry COP teams, who, because of the tenuous quality of this intelligence, were unlikely to get a contact with the 'Players' (British forces colloquialism for terrorists), even though these COP teams operated in very similar ways to SAS teams. It was common for SAS-trained soldiers to serve with 14 Intelligence Company (known colloquially as '14 Int' or often simply as 'The Det' because its members were volunteers who were detached from other units). A specialist unit set up specifically for Northern Ireland, 14 Int was an all arms unit, which meant they recruited from all branches of the armed services, including women. They served in the Province in an intelligence gathering role, mainly operating in plain clothes. 14 Int liaised closely with the RUC Special Branch and other security forces unit.

22 SAS's reputation, or rather mystique, grew to the extent that during the Balcombe Street siege, the IRA surrendered once the SAS deployment was publicised. This was a pragmatic move on their part, given the SAS's reputation for killing Irish republicans, armed or unarmed.

The SAS in popular culture

The SAS has since the early 1980s built up an almost mythical reputation within the UK. The British media's obsession increased enormously following the 1980 hostage rescue at the Iranian Embassy in London, which was seen live on the BBC. After the poularity of the SAS exploded, the film Who Dares Wins was released in 1981. The SAS was greatly popularised among young people all over the world in the extremely popular online game Counter-Strike. The SAS were added during the game's development as one of the CT units a player could choose to play.

Added to all this, there is a constant stream of fictional depictions of the SAS and of former SAS soldiers. Blurring the line between fiction and fact are a number of supposedly factual accounts which, some allege, are in reality highly dramatised accounts based very loosely on actual events. Perhaps the two most well known examples are two books written under pseudonyms by two former SAS troopers who served together on the infamous Bravo Two Zero mission in Iraq during the first Gulf war of 1991:

• Bravo Two Zero by Sergeant Andy McNab
• The One That Got Away by Corporal Chris Ryan

Both of these books have subsequently been criticised by authoritative sources (including the Regimental Sergeant Major of 22 SAS at the time of the first Gulf war, Peter Ratcliffe DCM) as being highly embellished dramatisations of actual events with only a tenuous connection to reality.

Despite the alleged embellishments, these books have sold very well, and consequently started a me-too publishing bonanza by ex-SAS soldiers cashing in on the clear public appetite. The British government has since moved to prevent this in future by insisting that all who serve with the Regiment sign an agreement not to publish details of their service with the Regiment.

Anything written about the SAS should perhaps be treated with a very healthy dose of scepticism because of the secretive nature of their work. There is even the common phenomenon of individuals claiming to have served with the Regiment, when in reality they have had little or even no connection whatsoever with the SAS (and sometimes no connection with the British Army at all).

In 2002 and 2003, BBC Television further exploited the success of the SAS with a series of programmes which showcased ordinary members of the public being subjected to training routines and survival exercises supposedly normally undergone by prospective members of the organisation for selection purposes, as well as a documentary featuring former SAS members explaining general combat and survival tactics.

Other Special Forces based on the SAS

• Australia - Australian Special Air Service Regiment

• New Zealand - Special Air Service of New Zealand

• Rhodesia - C Squadron of 22 SAS was composed of Rhodesian troops. It formed the nucleus of the Rhodesian SAS Regiment after the end of the Malayan Emergency in 1953, and subsequently the British SAS never raised another C Squadron. The Rhodesian SAS disbanded in December 1980 after the country became Zimbabwe. (See SAS Rhodesia by Fourie, C., & Pittaway, J., published Dandy Agencies, Durban, South Africa, 2003.)

• United States - The US Army Special Forces Operational Detachment: Delta (1st SFOD-D (A)), also known as Delta Force, was originally based on the SAS. Its founder, "Chargin'" Charlie Beckwith, having served on exchange with the SAS in the early 1960s, caught the "SAS bug" and, recognising a void in the US Army, devoted a large part of the remainder of his career to the raising and establishment of a US unit formed on "SAS lines" with SAS capabilites.

• Germany - The German Army special forces unit, the KSK, is also closely patterned on the SAS.

• Canada - The Canadian Military's Joint Task Force 2 is closely modelled on the SAS

See also

• UKSF
• 21 SAS
• 23 SAS
• Special Boat Service
• Special Reconnaissance Regiment
• Parachute Regiment
• British Forces Rangers
• List of SAS operations
• SAS Troops
• SO19
• Joint Task Force 2
• Delta Force
• Navy SEALs

• Special forces of the United Kingdom
• British Army regiments