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Anti-Americanism, often anti-American sentiment, is opposition or hostility to the people, culture or policies of the United States. In practice, a broad range of attitudes and actions critical of or opposed to the United States have been labeled anti-Americanism. Thus, the applicability of the term is often disputed. Contemporary examples typically focus on opposition to United States policy, though historically the term has been applied to a variety of concepts.

Interpretations of anti-Americanism have often been polarised. Anti-Americanism has been described as a belief that configures the United States and the American way of life as threatening at their core—what Paul Hollander has called "a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values." However, it has also been suggested that Anti-Americanism cannot be isolated as a consistent phenomenon and that the term merely signifies a rough composite of stereotypes, prejudices and criticisms towards Americans or the United States.

Whether sentiment hostile to the United States reflects reasoned evaluation of specific policies and administrations, rather than a prejudiced belief system, is a further complication. Globally, increases in perceived anti-American attitudes appear to correlate with particular policies, such as the Vietnam and Iraq wars. For this reason, critics sometimes argue the label is a propaganda term that is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational.

Definitions and usage

In the first edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary of the English Language (1828) the word 'anti-American' was defined as "opposed to America, or to the true interests or government of the United States; opposed to the revolution in America." The political employment of the word 'Anti-American' may be traced to the end of the War of 1812 (1812–1815), when the Federalist Party was accused by the Democratic-Republican press, of near-treasonous events at Hartford such as (unfounded) claims of secession proceedings. This second war with Britain was initiated by the War Hawks, a new group of nationalistic Republicans from the West led by House Speaker Henry Clay. The Federalists, on the other hand, with their historic ties to the British, operated as the antiwar party during this period. As such, they actually saw their numbers in Congress and state legislatures increase substantially, thanks to the growing antiwar sentiment in the nation and an uncertain political-economic environment. In December 1814 and January 1815, the Federalists met in Hartford, Connecticut, and denounced the Madison administration and the war with Great Britain. Unfortunately, the Hartford Convention was ill timed, as General Andrew Jackson won the Battle of New Orleans in January 1815, turning the tide of public sentiment toward the war. Very quickly, the Federalist Party was framed as the anti-American Party.

The verb "Americanize"—"to render American; to assimilate to the Americans in customs, ideas, etc.; to stamp with American characteristics"—was registered in Webster's dictionary of 1828. The related noun "Americanization" (which is thought often to elicit anti-Americanism) has been dated to a French source as early as 1867; In France the word 'antiaméricanisme' has been cataloged from 1948, entering wide political language in the 1950s.

Definitions of the term anti-Americanism have been much debated. In a 'Tale of Two Anti-Americanisms' Pierre Guerlain, Professor of American Studies at Université du Maine (France) and teacher at the Institut d'Études Politiques de Paris, has argued that the term represents two very different tendencies - "One systematic or essentialist, which is a form of prejudice targeting all Americans. The other refers to the way criticisms of the United States are labeled “anti-American” by supporters of U.S. policies in an ideological bid to discredit their opponents." Guerlain argues that these two “ideal types” of anti-Americanism can sometimes merge, thus making discussion of the phenomenon particularly difficult; the singularity deriving from the fact that 'America' denotes a country and the ideology of "American values" or 'Americanism':

With anti-Americanism one is constantly moving between very different spheres: national pride and nationalism, xenophobia, political or ideological conflict, ideas and feelings, love and hate. Proponents of Americanism or the superiority of American values can therefore constantly translate political analyses into declarations of hatred and their own nationalism or national arrogance into a duty to love America.

Labeling earlier attitudes and commentary "anti-American" may be a partly retroactive exercise, but numerous examples of hostile sentiment directed at the country can be found, from at least the late 18th century onwards. Publisher and editor of Die Zeit and adjunct professor of political science at Stanford University Josef Joffe, suggests five classic aspects of this phenomenon: reducing Americans to stereotypes; believing the United States to have an irremediably evil nature; ascribing to the U.S. establishment a vast conspiratorial power aimed at utterly dominating the globe; holding the United States responsible for all the evils in the world; and seeking to limit the influence of the United States by destroying it or by cutting oneself and one's society off from its polluting products and practices. Other advocates of the significance of the term argue that anti-Americanism represents a coherent and dangerous ideological current, comparable to anti-Semitism. Anti-Americanism has also been described as an attempt to frame the consequences of U.S. policy choices as evidence of a specifically American moral failure, as opposed to what may be unavoidable failures of a complicated foreign policy that comes with superpower status.

Its status as an "-ism" is a greatly contended aspect, however, and it is often called a propaganda term by critics who feel it is used to dismiss any censure of the United States as irrational. American academic Noam Chomsky, a prolific critic of U.S. policy, asserts that the use of the term within the U.S. has parallels with methods employed by totalitarian states or military dictatorships; he compares the term to "anti-Sovietism", a label used by the Kremlin to suppress dissident or critical thought, for instance. Brendon O'Connor notes that studies of the topic have been "patchy and impressionistic," and often one-sided attacks on anti-Americanism as an irrational position.

Other scholars have suggested that a plural of anti-Americanisms, specific to country and time period, more accurately describe the phenomenon than any broad generalization. The widely used "anti-American sentiment", meanwhile, less explicitly implies an ideology or belief system.

History

Since the founding of the United States of America, anti-Americanism has existed in different forms and for different reasons. Some anti-American views derive from ideological resistance to American values and culture. Other views are expressions of group identity, racism, and xenophobia. Still other anti-American sentiments are reactions to the policies of the United States government.

The degeneracy thesis

Anti-American sentiment originated with Europe's first contact with this land mass, the study of the Native Americans, and the examination of its flora, fauna, and climate. The first anti-American theory, the "degeneracy thesis," portrayed America as a regressive and culturally bankrupt continent. The theory that the humidity and other atmospheric conditions in America physically and morally weakened both men and animals was commonly argued in Europe, and occasionally debated by early American thinkers such as Alexander Hamilton, Benjamin Franklin, and Thomas Jefferson.

In 1768 Cornelius de Pauw, court philosopher to Frederick II of Prussia and chief proponent of this thesis, described America as "degenerate or monstrous" colonies and argued that, "the weakest European could crush them with ease."

The theory was extended to argue that the natural environment of the United States would prevent it from ever producing true culture. Paraphrasing Pauw, the French Encyclopedist Abbé Raynal wrote, "America has not yet produced a good poet, an able mathematician, one man of genius in a single art or a single science." (So virulent was Raynal's antipathy that his book was suppressed by the French monarchy.)

A derivative of the thesis regarding the soullessness of America and its inherent threat to Europe was also used in Fascist rhetoric and in German and Japanese propaganda during World War II.

Anti-technology and Romantic hostility

Nazi propaganda poster addressing the Dutch public in 1944 with the words: "The USA are supposed to save European culture". The image utilizes a number of themes, some of which (racism, use of excessive force, American culture and the influence of Judaism) are still in use within some varieties of modern anti-Americanism.

The French Revolution created a new type of anti-American political thought, hostile to the political institutions of the United States and their impact upon Europe. Furthermore, the Romantic strain of European thought and literature, hostile to the Enlightenment view of reason and obsessed with history and national character, disdained the American project.

The German poet Nikolaus Lenau encapsulated the Romantic view, "With the expression Bodenlosigkeit (absence of ground), I think I am able to indicate the general character of all American institutions; what we call Fatherland is here only a property insurance scheme."

With the rise of American industry in the late nineteenth century, intellectual anti-American discourse entered a new form. Mass production, the Taylor system, and the speed of American life and work became a major threat to some intellectuals' view of European life and tradition.

Friedrich Nietzsche wrote, "The breathless haste with which they (the Americans) work - the distinctive vice of the new world - is already beginning ferociously to infect old Europe and is spreading a spiritual emptiness over the continent."

It has been argued that this thesis transformed into a Heideggerian critique of technologism. Heidegger wrote in 1935: "Europe lies today in a great pincer, squeezed between Russia on the one side and America on the other. From a metaphysical point of view, Russia and America are the same, with the same dreary technological frenzy and the same unrestricted organization of the average man." Oswald Spengler had made similar claims in 1931's Man and Technics and his 1934 bestseller The Hour of Decision. In 1921, the Spaniard Luis Araquistáin wrote a book called El Peligro Yanqui (“The Yankee Peril”), in which he condemned American nationalism, mechanization, anti-socialism (“socialism is a social heresy there”) and architecture, finding particular fault with the country’s skyscrapers, which he felt diminished individuality and increased anonymity. He called the United States “a colossal child: all appetite...”

Anti-globalism

See also: Anti-globalization

Anti-CAFTA graffiti in San José, Costa Rica

According to its opponents, neoliberal globalization has magnified the visibility of trade conflicts and decreased job security, and is often attributed to either U.S. or Anglo-American influence Anti-globalist sentiments stem from perceptions that the United States was the inspiration and architect for globalization and neoliberal free trade policy, which those opposed to it claim is exploitative, and leads to conditions that either impoverish or do not enrich developing nations. According to some critics, globalization also exposed previously isolated countries to the spread of the English language and American popular culture, a process that some have labeled cultural imperialism (see American Cultural Imperialism). The 'Anglo-American' corporate business model is the subject of much opposition ("the EU constitution on offer, Laurent Fabius had argued, was too low on social protection and too high on shameful Anglo-Saxon economic liberalism")

National Identity

Anti-U.S. banner in a demonstration in Brazil, stating: USA It is necessary to resist. Long live Brazil!!!

Just as the United States itself has defined itself against Monarchical and Communist countries during its history, and is now defining itself against terrorism and radical Islam, anti-American ideologies have sometimes been used for propaganda purposes. In Iran for instance, the cry of "Death to America" has been used in Iran's parliament and at political rallies . Certain forms of social identity theory argue that the existence of "an other" is crucial to the development of group identity. In the case of a European strand of anti-Americanism, some authors, like A.S. Markowitz in Uncouth Nation: Why Europe Dislikes America, argue it would be linked to the creation of a coalescing European identity.

"The fundamental role of anti-Americanism in Europe in general, and particularly among those on the Left, is to absolve themselves of their own moral failings and intellectual errors by heaping them onto the monster scapegoat, the United States of America. For stupidity and bloodshed to vanish from Europe, the U.S. must be identified as the singular threat to democracy (contrary to every lesson of actual history). Thus, during the Cold War, it was dogma among Europeans from Sweden to Sicily, from Athens to Paris, that the "imperialistic" power was America, even though it was the USSR that annexed Eastern Europe, made satellites out of several African countries, and invaded Afghanistan, even though it was the People's Republic of China that marched into Tibet, attacked South Korea, and subjugated three Indochinese countries. A similar dynamic applies today in the war on terror."

Others, such as Minxin Pei of the Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, suggest that the unique character of American nationalism is the cause of some anti-Americanism.

"The US has difficulty understanding why other countries feel nationalistic. And its idealism appears to others as hypocrisy. "Many admire its idealism, universalism and optimism... others reject American nationalism as merely the expression of an overbearing, self-righteous and misguided bully.'"

According to Noam Chomsky, the concept is totalitarian:

"The concept "anti-American" is an interesting one. The counterpart is used only in totalitarian states or military dictatorships... Thus, in the old Soviet Union, dissidents were condemned as "anti-Soviet." That's a natural usage among people with deeply rooted totalitarian instincts, which identify state policy with the society, the people, the culture. In contrast, people with even the slightest concept of democracy treat such notions with ridicule and contempt. Suppose someone in Italy who criticizes Italian state policy were condemned as "anti-Italian." It would be regarded as too ridiculous even to merit laughter. Maybe under Mussolini, but surely not otherwise. Actually the concept has earlier origins. It was used in the Bible by King Ahab, the epitome of evil, to condemn those who sought justice as "anti-Israel" ("ocher Yisrael," in the original Hebrew, roughly "hater of Israel," or "disturber of Israel"). His specific target was Elijah."

Perceived ideological contradictions

File:Anti-US Tehran.jpg
Tehran, Iran, 2004

Samuel Johnson hit upon one theme that, in various and different forms, has long defined some forms of anti-American sentiment: the perceived hypocrisy of a supposed freedom-loving people engaged in less than admirable practices. Americans in his eyes were hypocrites in their relations with Indigenous peoples and African slaves.

"How is it that we hear the loudest yelps for liberty among the drivers of negroes?" He famously stated that, "I am willing to love all mankind, except an American."

Early 20th century

As European immigration to the United States continued and the country's economic potential became more obvious, anti-American stances grew a much more explicit geopolitical dimension. A new strand of anti-American sentiment started to appear as America entered the competition for influence in the Pacific, and anti-Americanism was widespread among the Central Powers after the U.S. entered the First World War. Furthermore, many of the anti-American ideological threads spread to other areas, such as Japan and Latin America, where Continental philosophy was popular and growing American power was increasingly viewed as a threat. In political terms, even among the allies of the United States, Britain and France, there was resentment at the end of the war as they found themselves massively in debt to the United States. These sentiments became even more widespread during the interbellum and Great Depression and sometimes tended toward the anti-Semitic: the belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy was common in countries ruled by fascists before and during World War II.

Post-Cold War policies

File:Vitrenkoposter.jpeg
Ukrainian 2004 election poster of Nataliya Vitrenko depicting a hand symbolizing USA and NATO with a Nazi swastika

The fall of the Soviet Union may have brought an increase in anti-Americanism because the U.S. was left as the world's only superpower and people who formerly saw the United States as a bastion against Communism or needed the American security umbrella no longer felt the need to support the United States. Where the governments of allied states in particular had felt disinclined to openly criticize U.S. policy during the Cold War, they have had fewer such qualms since. "By cultivating an anti-American position, Europe feigns membership in a global opposition of the downtrodden by America." In addition, criticism of American economic sanctions and embargos toward various countries, including Cuba, Sudan, North Korea and Iran, while maintaining commercial relations with countries such as China generates resentment.

French author Jean-François Revel wrote that "For skeptics of democratic capitalism, the United States is, quite simply, the enemy. For many years, and still today, a principal function of anti-Americanism has been to discredit the nation that stands as the supreme alternative to socialism. More recently, Islamists, anti-modern Greens, and others have taken to pillorying the U.S. for the same reason."

The belief that America was ruled by a Jewish conspiracy or that Israel was an American puppet state has also motivated anti-American hatred in some circles during the last third of the 20th century. Other items of concern include American military interventions and imperialism, especially in connection with the 2003 invasion of Iraq, and the perceived selective favor given to allies of the United States in international institutions , especially involving issues like nuclear proliferation . Also the apparent dismissal of international law, i.e. the treatment of detainees, in the War on Terror has intensified criticism .

Regional attitudes

Anti-Americanism in some form has existed across different American presidential administrations, though its severity may wax and wane considerably depending upon particular economic or geopolitical issues. George W. Bush's presidency, for instance, is widely seen as inducing a major increase in Anti-Americanism, with the 2003 invasion of Iraq affecting global opinions of the U.S.

Australia

The politically motivated deployment of Australian troops in the Korean War, has in recent years contributed to anti-Americanism.

Europe

Rammstein's 2004 single Amerika was widely perceived as anti-American

Fabbrini (2004) reports the American invasion of Iraq in the spring of 2003 brought anti-Americanism to the surface of public debate in Europe. In early 2002, the #1 best seller in France was L'Effroyable imposture, which claimed that 9/11 was a conspiracy orchestrated by the U.S. government. It broke the French record for first-month book sales. In Europe in 2002, vandalism of American companies was reported in Venice, Athens, Berlin, Zürich, Tbilisi, and Moscow.

East Asia

In Japan and South Korea, much recent anti-Americanism has focused on the presence and behavior of American military personnel, aggravated especially by high-profile crimes by U.S. servicemembers, such as the 1995 Okinawan rape incident. The on-going U.S. military presence in Okinawa remains a contentious issue in Japan.

While protests have arisen over specific incidents, they are often reflective of deeper historical resentments. Robert Hathaway, director of the Wilson Center's Asia program, suggests: "the growth of anti-American sentiment in both Japan and South Korea must be seen not simply as a response to American policies and actions, but as reflective of deeper domestic trends and developments within these Asian countries." In Japan, a variety of threads have contributed to anti-Americanism in the post-war era, including pacifism on the political left, nationalism on the right, and opportunistic worries over American influence in Japanese economic life. Korean anti-Americanism after the war was fueled by American occupation and support for authoritarian rule, a fact still evident during the country's democratic transition in the 1980s. Speaking to the Wilson Center, Katherine Moon notes that while the majority of South Koreans support the American alliance "anti-Americanism also represents the collective venting of accumulated grievances that in many instances have lain hidden for decades."

Middle East

File:Teheran US Barry Kent2.JPG
Anti-American mural in Tehran

Cultural anti-Americanism in the Middle East may have its origins with Sayyid Qutb, an influential Egyptian author, who Paul Berman titled "the Philosopher of Islamic Terror". Qutb, the leading intellectual of the Muslim Brotherhood, studied in Greely, Colorado, from 1948-50, and wrote a book, The America I Have Seen based on his impressions. In it he decried everything in American from individual freedom and taste in music to Church socials and haircuts,.

"They danced to the tunes of the gramophone, and the dance floor was replete with tapping feet, enticing legs, arms wrapped around waists, lips pressed to lips, and chests pressed to chests. The atmosphere was full of desire..."

He offered a distorted chronology of American history and was disturbed by its sexually liberated women

"The American girl is well acquainted with her body's seductive capacity. She knows it lies in the face, and in expressive eyes, and thirsty lips. She knows seductiveness lies in the round breasts, the full buttocks, and in the shapely thighs, sleek legs -- and she shows all this and does not hide it."

He was particularly disturbed by Jazz, which he called the American's preferred music, and it is created by Negroes to satisfy their love of noise and to whet their sexual desires .... Qutb's writings influenced generations of militants and radicals in the Middle East who viewed America as a cultural temptress bent on overturning traditional customs and morals, especially with respect to the relations between the sexes. As Paul Hollander has written:

"The most obvious and clear link between anti-Americanism and modernization is encountered in Islamic countries and other traditional societies where modernization clashes head on with entrenched traditional beliefs, institutions, and patterns of behavior, and where it challenges the very meaning of life, social relations, and religious verities. What becomes of the world when women can go to work and show large surfaces of skin to men they are not related to? In a recent case, the indignant male members of a Kurdish family in Sweden were "provoked" by the transgressing female of their family who had the temerity to have a job and a boyfriend and dress in Western ways. She was finally killed by her father."

Hollander went on to explain that:

"In Arab countries and among Muslim populations, anti-Americanism is not only the monopoly of intellectuals but also a widespread disposition of the masses. In these areas, traditional religion, radical politics, and economic backwardness combine to make anti-Americanism an exceptionally widespread, virulent, and reflexive response to a wide range of collective and personal frustrations and grievances-and a welcome alternative to any collective or individual self-examination or stock-taking.

More generally, it is the rise of alternatives, ushered in by modernization, that threatens traditional societies and generates anti-American reaction. The stability of traditional society (like that of modern totalitarian systems) rests on the lack of alternatives, on the lack of choice. Choice is deeply subversive-culturally, politically, psychologically.

The recent outburst of murderous anti- Americanism has added a new dimension to the phenomenon, or at any rate, throws into relief the intense hatred it may encapsulate. The violence of September 11 shows that when anti-Americanism is nurtured by the kind of indignation and resentment that in is stimulated and sanctioned by religious convictions, it can become spectacularly destructive."

Latin America

In Latin America, anti-American sentiment has deep roots dating back to the 1830s and the Texas Revolution. Other significant 19th century events which led to a rise in anti-American sentiment were the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War, the 1855 American intervention in Nicaragua and the Spanish-American War of 1898 - which turned Cuba into a virtual dependency of the United States.Perceived racist attitudes of the white Anglo-Saxon protestants of the north towards the populations of South America also caused resentment.In the twentieth century American support for the 1954 coup in Guatemala against Jacobo Arbenz Guzmán, the United States embargo against Cuba, the 1964 Brazilian coup d'état, Operation Condor, the 1973 Chilean coup d'état, the Salvadoran Civil War, the support of the Contras and the refusal to extradite a terrorist, continued to fueled anti-Americanism in the region.Similarly, U.S. support for dictators such as Augusto Pinochet, Anastasio Somoza, Alfredo Stroessner has influenced regional attitudes.Fidel Castro the revolutionary leader of Cuba has throughout his career tried to co-ordinate long standing South American resentments againt the USA through military and propagandist means.

The perceived failures of the neo-liberal reforms of the 1980s and the 1990s intensified opposition to the Washington consensus, leading to a resurgence in support for Pan-Americanism, support for popular movements in the region, the nationalization of key industries and centralization of government.America's tightening of the economic embargo on Cuba in 1996 and 2004 also caused resentment among South American leaders and has prompted them to use the Madrid based Iberian Summit as a meeting place rather than the American dominated OAS.One of the most vocal of these leaders has been Hugo Chávez of Venezuela, who is known for his strong opposition towards the American government, particularly George W. Bush, driving him to address him in many ways; referring to him as "the devil" before the United Nations.He has clearly stated his intent to use Venezuela's oil resources as a card "against the toughest country in the world, the United States."

Quotes

  • "The heaviest blow ever dealt at liberty will be dealt by this country , in the failure of its example to the earth" - Charles Dickens
  • "America is the only country that went from barbarism to decadence without civilization in between." - Oscar Wilde

See also

References

Notes

  1. Dictionary definitions typically apply the term to the American people and government policies. (See, for instance, Merrian-Webster and the American Heritage Dictionary.) Cultural anti-Americanism is attested in academic literature.
  2. Hollander, Paul, The Politics of Envy, The New Criterion, November 2002, accessed 29 April 2007.
  3. Hollander, Paul. Anti-Americanism: Irrational and rational, Transaction Publishers, 1995
  4. Ceaser, James W. "A genealogy of Anti-Americanism", The Public Interest, Summer 2003.
  5. Paul Hollander defined the prejudice thus: "Anti—Americanism is a predisposition to hostility toward the United States and American society, a relentless critical impulse toward American social, economic, and political institutions, traditions, and values; it entails an aversion to American culture in particular and its influence abroad, often also contempt for the American national character (or what is presumed to be such a character) and dislike of American people, manners, behavior; dress, and so on; rejection of American foreign policy and a firm belief in the malignity of American influence and presence anywhere in the world."
  6. ^ O'Connor, Brendan. "A Brief History of Anti-Americanism from Cultural Criticism to Terrorism", Australasian Journal of American Studies, July 2004, pp. 77-92
  7. Rodman, Peter W. The world’s resentment, The National Interest, Washington D.C., vol. 601, Summer 2001
  8. Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism By Nicole Speulda, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
  9. O'Connor, Brendan, op. cit., p 78: "... Cold War (1945-1989) ... In this period the false and disingenuous labeling of objections to American policies as ‘anti-Americanism’ became more prominent."
  10. The ARTFL Project - Webster's Revised Unabridged Dictionary (1913+1828)
  11. Encyclopedia of the American Foreign Relations
  12. Rubin, Barry. "Understanding Anti-Americanism", Foreign Policy Research Institute, August 2004
  13. Le Petit Robert ISBN 2-85036-668-4
  14. Roger, Phillipe. The American Enemy: The History of French Anti-Americanism, introductory excerpt, University of Chicago Press, 2005.
  15. Pierre Guerlain, A Tale of Two Anti-Americanisms (European Journal of American Studies 2007))
  16. Pierre Guerlain, A Tale of Two Anti-Americanisms (European Journal of American Studies 2007))
  17. Mead, Walter Russell (May/June 2006). "Through Our Friends' Eyes -- Defending and Advising the Hyperpower". Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 2008-04-12. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help) Review of Josef Joffe's Überpower: The Imperial Temptation of America.
  18. Markovits, Andrei S. "European Anti-Americanism (and Anti-Semitism): Ever Present Though Always Denied". Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs.
  19. Kagan, Robert. Of Paradise and Power: America and Europe in the New World Order (2003)
  20. Interviewing Chomsky Preparatory to Porto: Alegre Zmagazine
  21. On Violence and Youth—Noam Chomsky interviewed by Pepi Leistyna and Stephen Sherblom, chomsky.info, quoting Harvard Educational Review, Vol. 65, No. 2, Summer 1995 , retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  22. Noam Chomsky on the State of the Nation, Iraq and the Election, DEMOCRACY NOW!, October 21, 2004, retrieved 2008-01-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  23. Katzenstein, Peter and Robert Keohane. "Conclusion: Anti-Americanisms and the Polyvalence of America", in Anti-Americanisms in World Politics, Katzenstein and Keohane, eds., Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2006 (forthcoming).
  24. de Pauw, Cornelius. Recherches philosophiques sur les Américains ou Mémoires intéressants pour servir à l'histoire de l'espèce humaine. London, 1768.
  25. Raynal, Abbé Guillaume-Thomas. Histoire philosophique et politique des deux Indes. Amsterdam, 1770.
  26. Luis Araquistáin, El Peligro Yanqui (Madrid: Publicaciones españa, 1921).
  27. Moore, Michael, Downsize This, 1997
  28. Globalization and Resistance, 1995, retrieved 2007-02-24 {{citation}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help) An Interview with Noam Chomsky by Husayn Al-Kurdi}}
  29. "A triumph of the right". New Statesman. 2005. Retrieved 2007-02-24. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  30. Scott Peterson, In Iran, 'Death to America' is back, The Christian Science Monitor, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  31. "Death To America", Iran Parliament OKs Nuke Enrichment Bill, 1 November, 2004, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  32. ^ Jean-Francois Revel (2006), "Europe's Anti-American Obsession", The American Enterprise, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) (from internet archive)
  33. Steve Schifferes (6 June, 2003), The roots of anti-Americanism, BBC News, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  34. Jacklyn Martin (December 9, 2002), Is Chomsky 'anti-American'?] Noam Chomsky, chomsky.info, requoting The Herald, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  35. Andrei S. Markovits (January 19, 2007), Western Europe's America Problem, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help); Unknown parameter |publishter= ignored (help) (from internet archive)
  36. Nick Cohen (January 14, 2002), Why It Is Right to be Anti-American], New Stateman, retrieved 2008-04-14 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  37. Speulda, Nicole.Documenting the Phenomenon of Anti-Americanism, The Princeton Project on National Security, Princeton University, 2005
  38. CNN: Anti-Americanism in Europe deepens, February 14, 2003
  39. Cold War, Hot War, An Australian Perspective on the Korean War. by Gavan McCormack
  40. Bitterman, Jim French buy into 9/11 conspiracy, CNN, 26 June 2002.
  41. Crumley, Bruce TIME Europe Magazine: May. 20, 2002 -- Conspiracy Theory - 1, The Daily Telegraph, 20 November 2003.
  42. Bureau of Diplomatic Security (2003), pPolitical Violence Against Americans 2002 (pdf), Department of state, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  43. "Thousands rally against U.S. bases in Okinawa". CNN. October 21, 1995. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  44. "Road deaths ignite Korean anti-Americanism". International Herald Tribune. August 1, 2002. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  45. "Rice soothes Japan on rape case". CNN. February 27, 2008. Retrieved 2008-03-13.
  46. ^ The Making of "Anti-American" Sentiment in Korea and Japan, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars, May 06, 2003, retrieved 2007-12-05 {{citation}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  47. Glosserman, Bob (2005). "Anti-Americanism in Japan". Korean Attitudes Toward the United States: Changing Dynamics. M. E. Sharpe. pp. 34–45. ISBN 0765614359.
  48. "Anti-Americanism Grows in South Korea". New York Times. July 12, 1987. Retrieved 2008-04-11.
  49. Berman, Paul The Philosopher of Islamic Terror, New York Times Magazine, 23 March 2003, accessed 29 April 2007.
  50. David Von Drehle, A Lesson In Hate Smithsonian Magazine
  51. Siegel, Robert Sayyid Qutb's America, NPR, All Things Considered, 6 May 2003, accessed 29 April 2007.
  52. Amrika allati Ra'aytu (The America that I Have Seen) quoted on Calvert (2000)
  53. ^ Hollander, Paul The Politics of Envy, The New Criterion, Nov 2002, accessed 29 April 2007.
  54. http://www.pbs.org/kera/usmexicanwar/aftermath/legacy.html The Mexican-American War: Aftermath
  55. Volker Skierka (2004) Fidel Castro A Biography. Cambridge: Polity Press: 4
  56. Thomas Skidmore and Peter Smith (1997) Modern Latin America. Oxford University Press: 364-5
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