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Shown in green is the Kashmiri region under Pakistani control. The dark-brown region represents Indian-controlled Jammu and Kashmir while the Aksai Chin is under Chinese occupation
For other uses, see the region Kashmir.

Kashmir is a region in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. The term Kashmir historically described the valley just to the south of the westernmost end of the Himalayan range. Politically, however, the term 'Kashmir' describes a much larger area which includes the regions of Jammu, Kashmir, and Ladakh.

The main "Vale of Kashmir" is relatively low and very fertile, surrounded by magnificent mountains and fed by many mountain streams flowing from adjoining valleys. It is renowned as one of the most spectacularly beautiful places in the world.

Srinagar, the ancient capital, lies alongside Dal Lake and is famous for its canals and houseboats. Srinagar (alt. 1,600 m. or 5,200 ft.) acted as a favoured summer capital for many foreign conquerors who found the heat of the north Indian plains in summer oppressive. Just outside the city are found the beautiful Shalimar gardens created by Jehangir, the Mughal emperor, in 1619.

The region is currently divided amongst three countries: Pakistan controls the northwest portion (Northern Areas and Azad Kashmir) (India calls these areas "Pakistan-occupied Kashmir" (PoK)), India controls the central and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir), and the People's Republic of China has occupied the northeastern portion (Aksai Chin). Though these regions are in practice administered by their respective claimants, India has never formally recognized the accession of the areas claimed by Pakistan and China. Pakistan views the entire Kashmir region as disputed territory, and does not consider India's claim to it to be valid. An option favoured by many Kashmiris is independence, but both Pakistan and India are against this.

The rest of this article shall, for the sake of clarity, refer to the parts of Jammu and Kashmir administered by India, Pakistan and China as "Indian Kashmir", "Pakistani Kashmir", and "Chinese Kashmir" respectively. By this nomenclature, the word "Kashmir" in "Indian Kashmir" is used in a very general sense to refer to the state of Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir is one of the world's most well-known territorial disputes, and most Western made maps use a dotted-line to indicate the territory's uncertain boundaries.

Market boats on Mar Canal, Srinigar by E. Molyneux; painted before 1908

History

Main article: History of Kashmir

Early history

The name Kashmir came to be applied to this region as a result of the activities of the Dogra princes. The Dogras are a predominantly Hindu people in the area around Jammu. Their kings paid tribute to the Sikhs, and were part of the Sikh Empire that arose following the collapse of the Mughal Empire. Under the Sikhs, as feudatories, the Dogras sought and obtained permission to push into Kashmir and the North, into Ladakh. Zorawar Singh Dogra led an expedition into Tibet in a failed effort to bring it to submission to the Sikh Empire, as a sub-feudatory of the Dogras. With the sudden collapse of the Sikh Empire before the English forces, the Dogras purchased from the British their independence, and thus also assured themselves of their feudal hold over the subsidiary kingdoms of Kashmir, Ladakh and the Emirates of the north. The Dogra kings who originally ruled only from Jammu, also began to operate in summer from Srinagar, the metropolis of Kashmir. As a result, the Dogra Kingdom developed into a sort of "Dual Monarchy", the Dogra Kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir.

Kashmir is a valley whose beauty has been proclaimed by many and stretches out at about 7,200 square kilometers (2,800 square miles) at an elevation of 1,675 meters (5,500 feet). A Mughal ruler who built the famed Shalimar Gardens in Kashmir made the statement, " If heaven be on this earth, it must be here." It has a very ancient history and it was for a long time one of the centers of Hindu philosophical, literary and religious culture, a tradition still maintained by the native Hindu Kashmiri Pandit population. Kashmiri literature, sculpture, music, dance, painting, and architecture have had a profound influence in Asia. History, however, has witnessed the quick depletion of numbers of Kashmiri Pandits following incipience of Islamic rule; it is estimated that today at least a half million have fled from their homes in Jammu and Kashmir to other parts of India.

Partition, dispute and war

File:Mountbatten.jpg
The Instrument of Accession was accepted by Lord Mountbatten of India

In 1935 (before Indian independence), British rulers compelled the Dogra King of Jammu & Kashmir to lease for 60 years parts of his kingdom; parts which went to make up the new Province of the North-West Frontier, in a move designed to strengthen their northern boundaries, especially from Russia.

In 1947, the British dominion of India came to an end with the creation of two new nations, India and Pakistan. Each of the 565 Indian princely states had to decide which of the two new nations to join: Hindu-majority India or muslim-majority Pakistan. Jammu and Kashmir, which had a predominantly Muslim population, was one of these autonomous states, ruled by the Dogra King (or Maharaja) Hari Singh. Hari Singh preferred to remain independent and sought to avoid the stress placed on him by either India and Pakistan by playing each against the other.

Not long after partition, Pakistani tribals (Kabailis) from North Waziristan invaded Kashmir. This invasion was aggravated by the mutiny of the army in the northern province of Gilgit, led by the two British officers put in charge by the Hari Singh. They seized and kidnapped the Dogra prince, who was unelected governor, and unilaterally declared the province a part of Pakistan.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Main article: Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

The invading irregular Pakistani forces made rapid advances into North Kashmir (Baramulla sector). There were reports of widespread looting, abduction, rape, killings, and other atrocities committed by these tribal invaders on the population of parts of Kashmir they occupied. This forced Maharaja Hari Singh to ask the Government of India to intervene and put a halt to these atrocities. However, the Government of India pointed out that India and Pakistan had signed an agreement of non-intervention (maintenance of the "status quo") in Jammu and Kashmir; and although tribal invaders from Pakistan had entered Jammu and Kashmir, there was, until that point of time, no iron-clad legal evidence to unequivocally prove that the Government of Pakistan was officially involved, so it would be illegal for India to unilaterally intervene (in an open, official capacity) unless Jammu and Kashmir officially joined the Union of India, at which point it would be India's unalienable legal and moral right to intervene militarily to defend the lives, honour, and dignity of its own people, and their cultural heritage, property, and territory.

The Maharaja would have preferred to stay independent to maintain his power and influence, but desperately needed Indian military's help to protect his people and their property. However, India refused to intervene unofficially. Before the arrival of Pakistani tribal invaders and Pakistani irregulars into Srinagar, Maharaja Hari Singh completed negotiations for acceding Jammu and Kashmir to India and receiving military aid in return. The agreement which ceded Jammu and Kashmir to India was signed by the Maharaja and Lord Mountbatten. Original Accession Document

Pakistan claims that the Maharaja acted under duress, and that the accession of Kashmir to India is invalidated by a previous agreement between India and Pakistan, to maintain the "status quo". India counters that the invasion of Kashmir by tribals, aided and instigated by Islamabad, and reinforced by the Pakistani military, had rendered the agreement null and void. India also believes that the accession of Jammu and Kashmir to India was not just the decision of the ruler Hari Singh, but reflected the popular will of the people living in Jammu and Kashmir at that time. This is because of the fact that Sheikh Abdullah, a prominent muslim and the leader of the popular political party of Kashmir, the National Conference favoured Kashmir joining India.

The resulting war, the First Kashmir War, lasted until 1948, when India moved the issue to United Nations to ask Pakistan to vacate the occupied Kashmir. The United Nations imposed a cease-fire, and mandated a plebiscite among the entire Kashmiri population, subject to the withdrawal of all Pakistani forces, regular and irregular, and the plebiscite to be held under impartial observers.

Aftermath of war

Pakistan, however, refused to abide by this resolution. Pakistan's recalcitrance was strengthened by its alliance with USA against the Soviet Union, even as India allied with the USSR. A later resolution mandated a joint withdrawal, but it was never implemented.

The Treaty of Accession signed by Maharaja Hari Singh and his heir, the Sardar-e-Riyasat K. Singh Dogra, was ratified by the popular parliament of the kingdom, dominated by the popular political party of Kashmir, the National Conference led by Sheikh Abdullah. The Indian Government negotiated an autonomous status for the kingdom, and it was the only Indian province permitted to retain its own constitution, flag, anthem, etc.

Pakistan still asks for a plebiscite in Kashmir under the UN. However, India is no longer willing to allow a plebiscite, mainly because of the fact that the large parts of Kashmir that have been under Pakistani control since 1948 have been assimilated into Pakistan, as part of the Pakistani province called "Northern Areas". There are reports that since 1948, over the last 56 years, the Pakistani government has been settling non-Kashmiris from other parts of Pakistan (especially retired Pakistani Army personnel) in those areas, completely changing the demographics of the region, to the extent that the original (1948) inhabitants of Kashmir are now in a minority in their own homeland. The part of Pakistani Kashmir that has been kept "independent", the so-called "Azad Kashmir", is only a tiny sliver of land, a very tiny part of the parts of the original kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir that Pakistan occupied in 1948. On the other hand, Indian Kashmir has been protected from outside influence from other parts of India under Article 370 of the Constitution of India, which, for example, makes it illegal for a non-Kashmiri Indian to acquire property and settle in Jammu and Kashmir. (Kashmiri Indians are allowed to settle in any part of India).

The ceasefire line is known as the Line of Control (dotted line) and is the pseudo-border between India and Pakistan in most of the Kashmir region.

Map of Kashmir showing the Line of Control and disputed areas

Sino-Indian War

Main article: Sino-Indian War

In 1962, People's Republic of China invaded a totally unprepared India using an ongoing minor border dispute as the "causus belli" even though there was no pre-existing Chinese claim on any part of Kashmir Sino-Indian War. China had the upper hand throughout the war, resulting in the Chinese occupation of the region called Aksai Chin, which continues to date, as well as a strip along the eastern border. In addition to these lands, another smaller area, the Trans-Karakoram, was ceded to China by Pakistan in 1963 in exchange of military assistance, including clandestine proliferation of nuclear and ballestic technology by a "Nuclear Weapon State" (China) to Pakistan, a non-signatory of Nuclear Proliferation Treay (NPT). The line that separates India from China in this region is known as the Line of Actual Control.

1965 and 1971 Wars

In 1965 and 1971, heavy fighting again broke out between India and Pakistan. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 resulted in a defeat of Pakistan in East Pakistan (Bangladesh), and the capturing of 90,000 Pakistani soldiers by India in that region. The Simla Agreement was signed in 1972 between India and Pakistan. By this treaty, both countries agreed to settle all issues by peaceful means and mutual discussions in the framework of the UN Charter. The treaty is often viewed as having cemented the LoC as a permanent border between the two nations.

Rise of terrorism

It has been suggested that this article be merged with Terrorism in Kashmir. (Discuss)

In 1989, a widespread armed insurgency started in Kashmir, which continues to this day. According to Indian views, a large part of these insurgents are Pakistani-trained terrorists. Letters, pictures, identity cards, and other documents recovered by the Indian Army from several captured insurgents and from the bodies of several dead insurgents since widespread insurgency started in 1989, have confirmed that a large number of these men have come from Pakistan, Afghanistan, Syria, Saudi Arabia, and various other places where radical Islam has gained ground, or Islamic insurgency or religious war in the name of Islam (jihad) has been going on for some time. The end of the Soviet occupation in Afghanistan in 1988 also resulted in many of these unemployed jihadi fighters entering Kashmir to continue their religious terrorism.

However, most of the insurgents operating in Kashmir are of Kashmiri origin. Several of them, after being captured by the Indian Army, have confessed that they were contacted by Pakistani recruiters and went to Pakistan for arms training. The economy of Kashmir, dependent on tourism, has been badly damaged due to the ongoing insurgency.

Pakistani government calls these insurgents, a large fraction of whom are of foreign origin, "Kashmiri freedom fighters" and claims that it gives only moral and diplomatic support to these insurgents. Violence in Kashmir markedly falls during the winter when the mountain passes leading from Pakistan to Indian Kashmir become inaccessible due to heavy snowfall, making it difficult for insurgents to cross into Indian occupied Kashmir.

Cross-border infiltration

The border and the Line of Control separating Indian and Pakistani Kashmir passes through some exceptionally difficult terrain. The world's highest battleground, the Siachen Glacier is a part of this difficult-to-man boundary. It is not feasible, and perhaps not even physically possible, for India to place enough men to guard all sections of the border, throughout the various seasons of the year; one of the main reasons for the existance of "cross-border terrorism" in the region. Large sections of the International Border and Line of Control are left totally unguarded for large portions of the year, making it possible for terrorists to cross undetected. This is why the Kargil Intrusion of 1999 was possible.

Government of Pakistan has repeatedly claimed that by constructing a fence along the LoC, India is violating the Shimla Accord. However, the construction of the fence has helped decrease armed infiltration into Indian-administered Kashmir.

In 2002 Pakistani President and Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf promised to check cross-border terrorism and infiltration into Jammu and Kashmir.

Human rights abuse

Although matters have improved in Jammu and Kashmir following the opening of discussion between President Musharraf and Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, the influential independent human rights agency Amnesty International has said in its most recent report, released on May 24 2005, that violations continue, although they are unable to determine whether they have decreased because of security-related controls. The report, however, praised the efforts led by the Jammu and Kashmir-provincial government headed by Mufti Muhammad Sayeed, for checking human rights voilations.

Reasons behind the dispute

Ever since the Partition of India in 1947, both India and Pakistan have claims over Kashmir. These claims are centered on historical incidents and on religious affilitions of the Kashmiri people.

Indian view

The Indian claim centers on the agreement of the Maharaja to sign over Kashmir to India through the Instrument of Accession. It also focuses on India's stated secular ideology, an ideology that is not meant to factor religion into governance of major policy and thus imagines it irrelevant in a boundary dispute.

India has a large Muslim population totaling almost 170 million. According to the Indian viewpoint, these Indian Muslims rejected Muhammad Ali Jinnah's call for Partition on religious lines in 1947, and chose to stay in Secular India with their Hindu, Sikh, Buddhist, Christian, Parsi, Jewish, and Jain brothers and sisters rather than go to the new-born Islamic country of Pakistan. This argument is backed by the fact that India has the world's second largest population of Muslims, and its minorities are very well integreted, with Muslims and Sikhs holding positions of power and influence in India, most notably the positions of President and Prime Minister.

To India, Pakistan's claim to Kashmir based on no better reason than the fact that Kashmir has a Muslim majority population is insupportable; even more so because in 1947, when Kashmir still had a Muslim majority population, its popular leader, Sheikh Abdullah of its dominant political party, the Jammu & Kashmir National Conference, had unequivocally said that Kashmir would choose to join India, not Pakistan, reflecting the Sufi religious tolerance and secularism that has been part of Kashmir's history since time immemorial and lives in the heart and soul of most Kashmiris, Muslim, Hindu or Buddhist; as opposed to the dogmatic and non-secular Wahabi/Sunni Islam represented by Pakistan. Indeed, the secular nature of Kashmiri Muslims and Hindus is exemplified by the fact that till 1947, Jammu and Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu King, Maharaja Hari Singh, even though an overwhelming majority of the inhabitants of Jammu and Kashmir were Muslim.

Indian government maintains that, the Pakistani-held territories are land illegally taken by Pakistan. The fact that Pakistan gave five thousand square miles of this Kashmiri/Indian land (see Aksai Chin) that it had forcibly occupied in 1948 to China in 1963, is even more difficult for India to understand or accept.

Pakistani view

The Pakistani claim to Kashmir is based on the fact that the majority of Kashmir's population is Muslim. Since Pakistan was created as a nation for the Muslims of India, the leadership of Pakistan has always felt that Kashmir rightfully belongs to Pakistan. The Pakistani claim is also based on a belief that most Kashmiris would vote to join Pakistan, although this has never been proven or disproven.

Successive military governments in Pakistan have apparently acted to keep the Kashmir problem alive on multiple occasions. For example, in the 1970s, Pakistan's military chief, General Zia-ul-Haq deposed and hanged the then civilian Prime Minister of Pakistan Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who had made great progress with Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi to solve the Kashmir problem based on mutual understanding and respect, as envisaged in the Shimla Agreement. Zia-ul-Haq, the military leader of Pakistan, removed the civilian leader Bhutto and killed him before the Kashmir issue could be solved.

A second well-known instance was in the late 1990s, when the civilan leader of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif, was removed by the military ruler General Pervez Musharraf, after Sharif was widely blamed for the Kargil War debacle. Musharraf seized power and imprisoned Sharif, who was later exiled after his health seriously deteriorated during imprisonment. At the same time, Musharraf also completely jeopardized the peace process by making a disastrous and ill-planned military misadventure into the Kargil sector of India, leading to the Kargil War of 1999. The next two years, Kashmiri fighters organised an attack on the Jammu and Kashmir State Assembly in Srinagar.

The water dispute

Another valid reason behind the dispute over Kashmir is water. Kashmir is the origin point for many rivers including the Indus and its tributaries Jhelum and Chenab which primarily flow into Pakistan while other branches - the Ravi, Beas and the Sutlej irrigate northern India. Pakistan has been apprehensive that in a dire need India under whose portion of Kashmir lies the origins of the said rivers, would use its strategic advantage and withhold the flow and thus choke the agrarian economy of Pakistan. The Boundary Award of 1947 meant that the headworks of the chief irrigation systems of Pakistan were left located in Indian Territory. Essentially this is seen as a "veto" power held by India over Pakistan agriculture. In view of the plans to build a dam over Chenab, Pakistan has highlighted the plight, but on the other hand India has maintained that it cannot deny water to its own people whose mandate the government needs to be in power.

Many historians agree that the failure of Pakistan to take the much more fertile areas of Kashmir during the initial conflict (First Kashmir War) has cost them dear. This is because the area occupied by Pakistan is much less fertile and less strategic a point given India's unlimited access to the most critical mineral of all: water. The Kashmir issue thus is both about land and water.

Map issues

As with other disputed territories, each government issues maps depicting their claims in Kashmir as part of their territory, regardless of actual control. It is illegal in India to exclude all or part of Kashmir in a map. Non-participants often use the Line of Control and the Line of Actual Control as the depicted boundaries, as is done in the CIA World Factbook, and the region is often marked out in hashmarks, although the Indian Government strictly opposes such practices.

Recent developments

Both India and Pakistan continue to assert their sovereignty or rights over the entire region of Kashmir. India considers all of Kashmir to be an integral part of India, and often makes statements domestically about acquiring the Pakistani half, known in Pakistan as ‘Azad’ (free) Kashmir. In international forums however it has offered to make the Line of Control a permanent border on a number of occasions. Officially Pakistan insists on a UN sponsored plebiscite, so that the people of Kashmir will have a free say in which country all of Kashmir should be incorporated into. Unofficially, the Pakistani leadership has indicated that they would be willing to accept alternatives such as a demilitarized Kashmir, if sovereignty of Azad Kashmir was to be extended over the Kashmir valley, or the ‘Chenab’ formula, by which India would retain parts of Kashmir on its side of the Chenab river, and Pakistan the other side. Besides the popular factions that support either parties, there is a third faction which supports independence and withdrawal of both India and Pakistan. These have been the respective stands of the parties for long, and there have been no significant change over the years. As a result, all efforts to solve the conflict have been futile so far.

Conflict in Kargil

Main article: Kargil War

In mid-1999, insurgents from Pakistani Kashmir infiltrated into Jammu and Kashmir. During the winter season, Indian forces move down to lower altitudes as severe climatic conditions makes it almost impossible for them to guard the high peaks near the LoC. The Pakistan-backed insurgents took advantage of this and occupied vacant mountain peaks of the Kargil range overlooking the highway in Indian Kashmir, connecting Srinagar and Leh. By blocking the highway, they wanted to cut-off the only link between the Kashmir Valley and Ladakh. This resulted in a high-scale conflict between the Indian Army and the Kashmiri insurgents.

At the same time, fears of the Kargil War turning into a nuclear war, provoked the then-US President Bill Clinton to pressure Pakistan to retreat. The conflict ended with the withdrawal of Pakistani backed forces, and India reclaiming control of the peaks which they now patrol and monitor at considerable cost. It is also widely believed that the Indians suffered considerably more losses in terms of personnel, equipment and money.

Efforts to end the crisis

The 9/11 attacks on the US, resulted in the US government wanting to restrain militancy in Pakistan. The USA put diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to cease infiltrations by Islamic fighters into Indian-held Kashmir. The international community also created pressure on Islamabad to stop the terrorist camps operating on its soil. In early 2002, India sought to take advantage of US's new attitude by escalating its response to the attempted terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament, resulting in war threats, massive deployment and international fears of nuclear war in the subcontinent.

After intensive diplomatic efforts by other countries, India started to withdraw troops from the international border, a move that was immediately reciprocated by Pakistan on June 10, 2002, and negotiations began again. Effective November 26, 2003, India and Pakistan have agreed to maintain a ceasefire along the undisputed International Border, the disputed Line of Control, and the Siachen glacier. This is the first such "total ceasefire" declared by both nuclear powers in nearly 15 years. In February 2004, Pakistan further increased pressure on Pakistani Muslims fighting in Indian held Kashmir to adhere to the ceasefire. The nuclear-armed neighbours also launched several other mutual confidence building measures. Restarting the bus service between the Indian- and Pakistani- administered Kashmir has helped difuse the tensions between the countries. Both India and Pakistan have also decided to cooperate on economic fronts.

Subdivisions

Indian-administered Kashmir

India controls approximately 45.5% (101,387 km²) of the disputed terrirtory. Indian-administered Kashmir, known as the state of Jammu and Kashmir, includes 3 main regions:

Indian-controlled Kashmir is divided into 6 administrative districts: Anantnag, Baramulla, Budgam, Doda, Jammu, Kargil, Kathua, Kupwara, Leh, Poonch, Pulwama, Rajauri, Srinagar and Udhampur. Major cities include Srinagar, Jammu and Leh.

Pakistan-administered Kashmir

The Pakistan-controlled portion of Kashmir, is divided up into the following regions:

  • Azad Kashmir: 250 miles in length with width varying from 10 to 40 miles, 13,300 km² (5134 miles²).
  • Northern Areas, a much larger area, 72,496 km² (27,991 mi²), incorporated into Pakistan and administered as a de facto dependency.

Chinese-adminisered Kashmir

Areas under Chinese-control include:

Demographics

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Occupier Area Population % Muslim % Hindu % Buddhist % Other
Pakistan Northern Areas ~3 million 99% – – –
Azad Kashmir 99% – – –
India Jammu ~9 million 30% 66% – 4%
Ladakh 46% – 50% 3%
Kashmir Valley 95% 4% – –
China Aksai Chin – – – – –
Statistics from the BBC In Depth report

In 1941 the Hindus represented 15 % of the population. In 1991 they only represented 0.1 % of Kashmir's population.

In 1989, the total population of Kashmiri pundits was approximately 425,000. Only 15,000 Kashmiri Pundits still stay in the valley.

Culture

Kashmiri lifestyle is essentially - irrespective of the differing relgious beliefs - slow paced. Generally peace loving people, the culture has been rich enough to reflect the religious diversity as tribes celebrate festivities that divert them from their otherwise monotonous way of life. Kashmiris are known to enjoy their music in its various local forms and the dresses of both sexes are quite colorful. The Dumhal is a famous dance in Kashmir, performed by menfolk of the Wattal region. The women perform the Rouff another folk dance.

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Economy

Historically, Kashmir came into economic limelight when the world famous Cashmere wool was exported to other regions and nations. Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and making shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas and pottery. Kashmir is home to the finest saffron in the world - the Kashmir/Indian saffron. Efforts are on to export the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organic foods mainly to the middle east. It has traditionally been a holy site for various religions like, Hinduism, Buddhism and Islam. Along with pilgrimage, since the dawn of the 20th century, it also became a favourite tourist spot until the spurt of tensions in the 1990s.

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Tourist attractions

The Vale of Kashmir, from Talmarg. Kashmir, India

The scenic setting of Kashmir itself has been a major tourist attraction despite the ever present danger. The mode of travel itself is a picturesque sight with many house boats and boat taxis ferrying passengers and goods alike. There are many mosques serving the Muslim population, such as the Hazratbal Mosque, situated on the western banks of Dal Lake. The mosque is home to a holy hair belonging to the prophet Mohammed which was sent to Kashmir by the Moghul emperor Aurangzeb. Thirty kilometers from Srinagar lies Chrar-e-Sharif, which is a holy shrine of the Muslim Sheikh Noor-ud-Din Wali. Originally constructed in 1395, Khanqah of Shah Hamadan is the first mosque ever built in Srinagar. There are also some Hindu temples. In addition, there is the claimed tomb of Jesus in the Rozabal section of Srinagar, visited by many. There is also the purported tomb of Moses on Mount Nebo (Nebo Bal). Recently a number of Jews have started to visit Kashmir to see the land where some lost tribes may have settled in antiquity. Kashmir tourism received a boost when the world's highest and longest operating gondola lift was opened for the public in the Gulmarg region of J&K, thereby providing easier access to skiing as well as mountaineering.

See also

Further reading

  • Drew, Federic. 1877. “The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations.” 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971.
  • Neve, Arthur.(Date unknown). The Tourist's Guide to Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civil and Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date of this edition is unknown - but the 16th edition was published in 1938)
  • Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa's Rājataraṅgiṇī – A Chronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A. Constable & Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, Motilal Banarsidass, 1979.
  • Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in the Crossfire (London: I B Tauris, 1996)
  • Kashmir Study Group, 1947-1997, the Kashmir dispute at fifty : charting paths to peace (New York, 1997)
  • Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: A Narrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Tibet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans, Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng Wen Publishing Company, Taipei. 1971.
  • Navnita Behera, State, identity and violence : Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000)
  • Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Cambridge : Cambridge U.P., 1997)
  • Sumantra Bose, The challenge in Kashmir : democracy, self-determination and a just peace (New Delhi: Sage, 1997)
  • Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846-1990 (Hertingfordbury, Herts: Roxford Books, 1991)
  • Prem Shankar Jha, Kashmir, 1947: rival versions of history (New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1996)
  • Manoj Joshi, The Lost Rebellion (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1999)
  • Alexander Evans, Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001 p170-175.
  • Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, E. 1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.
  • Drew, Frederic. Date unknown. The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories with Illustrations. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu. 1971.
  • Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841. Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustan and the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Peshawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819 to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publications, 1971.
  • Anonymous. 1614. Baharistan-i-Shahi: A Chronicle of Mediaeval Kashmir. Translated by K.N. Pandit.

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