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This article discusses the Lithuanian part of the region. For the Polish one, see Suwałki Region.

Etnographic regions of Lithuania with Sudovia highlighted in light orange.

Suvalkija or Sudovia (Template:Lang-lt) is the smallest of the five cultural regions of Lithuania. Its unofficial capital is Marijampolė. People from Suvalkija are called suvalkiečiai (plural) or suvalkietis (singular). It is located south of the Neman River, in the former territory of Vilkaviškis bishopric. Historically, it is the newest ethnographic region as its most distinct characteristics and separate identity formed during the 19th century when the territory was part of Congress Poland. It was never a separate political entity and even today it has no official status in the administrative division of Lithuania. However, it continues to be the subject of studies focusing on Lithuanian folk culture of the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Most of Lithuania's cultural differences blended or disappeared during the Soviet era (1944–1990), remaining the longest in southeastern Lithuania. The concept remains popular among Lithuanian people. A 2008 survey of freshmen and sophomores at Kaunas' Vytautas Magnus University found that 80% of the students continued to identify themselves with one of the regions. Efforts are made to preserve, record, and promote any remaining aspects of the original folk culture.

Naming

Region

In Lithuania three different names have been applied to region, causing some confusion:

Sudovia (Sūduva) is derived from the ancient Baltic tribe of Sudovians, the original inhabitants of the region. The term Sudovia is ambiguous as it is also used to refer to the ancient Sudovian-inhabited areas, which stretched much further south.
Suvalkija is derived from the former Suwałki Governorate (1867–1914) of Congress Poland. The city of Suwałki has been part of Poland since 1919 and the original meaning of the phrase is long lost.
Užnemunė (literally: beyond the Neman River) describes the geographical location of the region, but is not entirely accurate. The southwestern portion of Dzūkija, sometimes known as Dainava, is also on the left bank of the river. The areas became distinct as a result of drastically different economic developments in Suvalkija (northern Užnemunė) and Dzūkija (southeastern Užnemunė).

In recent years there has been a public debate as to which name, Suvalkija or Sudovia, is preferable. Historians have argued that Sudovia is an anachronism that refers to the land in the 13th and 14th centuries. One commentator labeled the effort to rename the region as "neotribalism" – an artificial attempt to find connections with the long-extinct tribe. Supporters of Sudovia protested against using a term imposed on the region by the Russian Empire, especially since the city of Suwałki is in Poland and the current region has no connection with it. They have also argued that the term Suvalkija is a fairly recent and artificial political development, popularized by Soviet historians, and that the more archaic Sudovia more correctly reflects the region's historical roots. The suffix -ija is not generally used in the Lithuanian language to derive placenames from city names (the only exception is Vilnija, used to describe the Vilnius Region). An official petition from the Council for Protection of the Suvalkija Regional Ethnic Culture to the Commission of the Lithuanian Language, requesting an official name change from Suvalkija to Sudovia, was rejected in 2005. The Commission based the decision on its finding that Suvalkija prevails in both academic literature and everyday life.

Sub-regions

Suvalkija is roughly subdivided into two areas, inhabited by Zanavykai (singular: Zanavykas) and by Kapsai (singular: Kapsas). Zanavykai occupy northern Suvalkija in the area approximately bounded by the Neman, Šešupė, and Višakis Rivers. Before 1795 that part of Suvalkija lay within the Eldership of Samogitia, while the rest was within Trakai Voivodeship. Šakiai is considered to be the capital of this subregion, sometimes called Zanavykija. Another important center is in Veliuona. The name Zanavykai is derived from the Nova River, a tributary of the Šešupė River. People who lived beyond the river (Polish: za Nawą) became known as Zanavykai. The prefix za- and the suffix -yk are Slavic. To correct this, linguists proposed naming the group Užnovičiai or Užnoviškiai, terms which also mean "beyond the Nova river" but follow Lithuanian language precedents. However, this proposal did not gain popular support and the term Zanavyvai is still widely used.

Kapsai inhabit southern Suvalkija, with major centers in Marijampolė and Vilkaviškis. The term is not used by local inhabitants to identify themselves, but is rather a term coined by linguists, which has not gained enough popularity to replace Zanavykai. When linguists classified Lithuanian language dialects, they identified two major sub-dialects in Suvalkija: one in the territory inhabited by Zanavykai and another in the south. Southerners pronounced the word kaip (how) as kap. This distinct characteristic earned them the name, but they could also be called Tepsai as they pronounced word taip (yes) as tep. A revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965 by linguists Zigmas Zinkevičius and Aleksas Girdenis, eliminates this distinction and deems the local dialect a sub-dialect of Western Aukštaitian dialect. However, other cultural distinctions between Zanavykai and Kapsai exist, including their traditional clothing styles.

History

Political history

Suwałki Governorate (1867–1914) in yellow. The region gained its name from this governorate.

The lands of the Sudovians and Yotvingians were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania during the 13th century. The region was frequently ravaged by the Teutonic Knights and was abandoned by most of its inhabitants. After the 1422 Treaty of Melno, its western borders were fixed and the territory became the sole property of the Grand Duke himself. In 1569 the Grand Duchy joined the Kingdom of Poland to form the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Commonwealth was partitioned in 1795 and Suvalkija, as part of the larger territory on the left bank of the Neman River, was incorporated into the Province of East Prussia. This meant that Suvalkija was separated from Lithuania Proper, which was taken by the Russian Empire. In 1807 Suvalkija was briefly part of the Duchy of Warsaw, a small Polish state established by Napoleon Bonaparte, before being incorporated in 1815 into Congress Poland, an entity formed by personal union with the Russian Empire. During the remainder of the 19th century and the early 20th century, Suvalkija was administratively part of the Augustów Governorate, and later of the Suwałki Governorate. Russian census statistics showed that Lithuanians formed a slight majority in the northern part of the Governate, and that Poles, concentrated in the Suwałki Region in the south, accounted for about 23% of the Governorate's total population. Lithuania and Poland became independent states after World War I, and disputed their borders in this region. The Suwałki Governorate was split more or less along ethnic lines. The northern section of Suvalkija has since been part of Lithuania, and the southern part of Poland.

Economic history

Suvalkija has long been known as an affluent agricultural region. Increased demand for wood prompted resettlement and deforestation of the wast area in the 16th–17th centuries. To prevent people from Duchy of Prussia illegally crossing Lithuania–Prussia border and cutting down the trees, Grand Duke of Lithuania established several border villages between Jurbarkas and Virbalis. Queen Bona Sforza, who governed the land on behalf of her husband Sigismund I the Old in 1527–1556, was especially supportive to such new villages. Another direction of resettlement was from north, along the Neman River. There large territories were gifted by the Grand Duke to various nobles, including Sapieha family. Settlements slowly spread further south and east.

By mid-17th century the pace of resettlement greatly slowed down as wood demand decreased and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania lost almost half of its population due to the Northern Wars (1655–1661), famine, and plague. Another wave of depopulation hit during the Great Northern War (1700–1721). By that time re-population of Suvalkija was almost complete. Settlers were attracted by fertile farmland in the plains, resulting from the deforestation, and eased burdens of serfdom: because a lot of land was owned the Grand Duke himself, serfs did not have to perform corvée. Re-population in private holdings of nobles in the north was much slower. Another important aspect was the proximity of the East Prussia and its capital Königsberg, a major trade center and second-largest export destination (after Riga) of the Grand Duchy. Kudirkos Naumiestis was the gateway to Prussia.

Serfdom in Suvalkija was abolished in 1807 by Napoleon Bonaparte: peasants acquired personal freedoms, but not the ownership of the land. That changed only in 1861 when serfdom was abolished in the entire Russian Empire. Already in 1820s farmers in Suvalkija started dividing their villages into individual farmsteads (Lithuanian: singluar – vienkemis, plural – vienkemiai). That is a sign of certain economic prosperity among the peasants. The old three-field system was obsolete as the land was managed by the community and individuals could not introduce any technological advances without their approval. In other parts of Lithuania this process started only after abolition of serfdom in 1861 and intensified after the Stolypin reform in 1906.

Because serfdom in Suvalkija was abolished 50 years earlier than in the rest of Lithuania, land in Suvalkija is known for its fertility, and close economic ties with East Prussia, inhabitants of Suvalkija managed to acquire more wealth. As such they are traditionally perceived as very rational, smart and extremely frugal, even greedy. Such stereotypical labels, also applied to other regions, gave rise to many anecdotes and practical jokes. Suvalkija even today remains the least forested area of Lithuania (in 2005 forests covered 21.6% of Marijampolė County while national average is 32%). The third-largest forest of Lithuania, Kazlų Rūda Forest (587 km²), is in Suvalkija but covers sandy soil unfit for farmlands. Suvalkija remains one of the most important regions of agriculture in Lithuania. It it is known for growing sugar beets.

Cultural history

Originally, the region was inhabited by the Baltic tribe of the Sudovians (hence, it is sometimes known as "Sudovia"). Because of continuous raids by the Teutonic Knights in attempts to baptize pagan Grand Duchy of Lithuania most of ancient Sudovia became rarely inhabited wilderness covered by large forests. After the Battle of Grunwald in 1410, which ended the crusade against Lithuania, the territory became slowly repopulated by settlers from Samogitia and Aukštaitija. They brought their culture, mixed with remaining locals, and gradually formed a distinct ethnographic culture which combines elements typical to both Samogitians and Aukštaitians and elements not found anywhere else.

Most significant changes came about in the late 18th and early 19th centuries. Suvalkija was separated from the Lithuania Proper. While brief, Napoleon period left major changes in the region. Most important of them was introduction the Napoleonic Code and the Gregorian Calendar. It meant that serfdom in Suvalkija was abolished almost 50 years earlier than the rest of Lithuania. Peasants gained personal freedom and opportunities to acquire wealth. The region also offered better educational opportunities as it had a teacher seminary in Veiveriai and a gymnasium in Marijampolė while most educational institutions in Lithuania were closed after the January Uprising in 1863. Priest seminaries in Sejny and Kaunas were also available. According to the census taken in 1897, the rate of literacy among the peasants of the Suvalkai Province was the highest in the Russian Empire. People of Suvalkija were also among the first and most numerous emigrants to the United States.

This led to formation of a new well-educated class, which fueled the Lithuanian National Revival in the second half of the 19th century. Among many notable figures from the region were patriarch of Lithuanian independence Jonas Basanavičius, author of the national anthem of Lithuania Vincas Kudirka, and Jonas Jablonskis, a linguist, who worked towards creation of standardized Lithuanian (dialects spoken in Suvalkija became basis for the standardized modern Lithuanian). Gradually the center for the Revival shifted from eastern Samogitia to Suvalkija due to activities of such prominent figures and better economic conditions in the region.

Folk culture

Language

Traditional classification of Lithuanian dialects divided Suvalkija into two regions: inhabited by Zanavykai in the north and by Kapsai in the south. These two sub-dialect were the basis of the standard Lithuanian language. It was quite difficult to identify language characteristics that would be unique to those regions as the characteristics are extremely diverse and unevenly spread. Revised classification of the dialects, proposed in 1965, eliminates this distinction and groups Zanavykai, Kapsai and central Aukštaitian sub-dialects as one Kaunas sub-dialect of Western Aukštaitian dialect. The territory of Kaunas sub-dialect encompasses a much larger territory than Suvalkija and stretches beyond the Neman River.

Western Aukštaitian dialect, unlike other dialects of Lithuanian, correctly preserves mixed diphthongs an, am, en, em and ogonek vowels ą and ę. The dialect is sub-divided into Kaunas and Šiauliai sub-dialects. Kaunas sub-dialect, in contrast to Šiauliai sub-dialect, in most cases separates long and short vowels and stresses word endings just like the standard Lithuanian. Because of close economic contacts with East Prussia, people from Suvalkija borrowed a number of German words. There are efforts to preserve, record, and promote the local dialects. In in 2003–2006 Science and Encyclopaedia Publishing Institute published a three-volume dictionary of Zanavykai sub-dialect. Marijampolė County organizes annual Language Day to encourage preservation of the sub-dialect.

Going from north (Zanavykai) to south (Kapsai and Dzūkija) the stressed first component of mixed diphthongs ul, um, un, ur, il, im, in, and ir, changes from short to semi-long to long (from kúlt to kùlt to kūlc – to thresh, from pírmas to pìrmas to pyrmas – first, from pínti to pìnti to pync – to braid). Kapsai like to modify the beginning of the word. If a word starts in ei or e, they are usually replaced with ai and a (aik instead of eik – go, ažeras instead of ežeras – lake). Zanavykai are known to go the other way (ekmuo instead of akmuo – stone, ešis istead of ašis – axis). Kapsai often add v to words that start with uo, u, or o (vuoga instead of uoga – berry, voras instead of oras – air) and j to words that start with i, y, or ie (jilgas instead of ilgas – long, jieva instead of ieva – bird cherry). Zanavykai like to shorten words. They often drop n from verbs (gyvek instead of gyvenk – live!) and shorten past tense form of verbs (žino instead of žinojo – he knew, galė instead of galėjo – he could, ė instead of ėjo – he walked). Zanavykai also preserved some archaic forms and rules of declension, especially in pronominal pronouns, and of conjugation, especially in dual verbs.

Clothing

Traditional peasant clothing in Suvalkija while consisting of the same clothing items differed greatly from other parts of Lithuania. Because the region was relatively wealthier, the clothes were richer in decorations, color, and ornaments. They were also made of better and more expensive materials, including brocade, silk, wool, and damask. Regional differences existed even withing Suvalkija. Kapsai women had long, wide dress garments with large designs of stars and tulips, semidark in colour and partially striped. The Zanavykai costume is one of the most decorative in design, colour and style.

Suvalkija women wore wide, gathered skirts of one main color (dark and rich like dark red, blue, violet, or green) with narrow multi-colored stripes woven into the fabric. Women's shirts in Suvalkija are distinguishable from those of other regions by their wider sleeves and by more extensive decorations. Especially richly decorated and colorful were aprons, with Kapsai laying stripes and other ornaments horizontally, while the Zanavykai preferred vertical compositions. Women also had richly decorated sashes tied around their waist. These sashes used more complex ornaments than in other regions, where more archaic but simpler geometric forms prevailed. Because of their relative complexity these sashes were valued more by the folk art collectors. A few examples were presented in the first Lithuanian art exhibition in 1907. Bodices at first were identical to those in Dzūkija but by the mid-19th century differentiated. Bodices of Zanavykai had short laps, while bodices of Kapsai were long and flared. Headdresses of young girls and married women were different. Kapsai young girls wore tall golden gallons, while Zanavykai youth wore narrow galloons, sometimes replacing them with beads. Married women wore bonnets similar to those in Dzūkija.

Men's wear was simpler and only occasionally decorated with modest embroidery. Men wore caftans pleated at the back. Caftans, usually sewn from light gray or white woolen cloth, were later replaced by coats. Shirts, resembling a tunic, were sewn from white linen cloth and usually were not decorated. The most decorative detail of men's garment was decorative patterned sashes around their waists. Men also wore high boots and hats with straight brims that were decorated with feathers and flowers.

As elsewhere, the traditional clothing began to rapidly change in the beginning of the 20th century as city and town culture increasingly influenced the traditional peasant life. Clothes became simpler, less colorful and decorated. Women started wearing variety of jackets, usually of one dark color, and covered their heads with simple scarfs tied under their chin. Skirts became less and less gathered and colored stripes disappeared. Celebrated aprons and sashes were lost completely.

The first ideas and models of the national costume were formed in the Lithuania Minor (East Prussia) where Lithuanian cultural activities were legal and not suppressed by the Lithuanian press ban. After the ban was lifted in 1904, clothes from the Lithuania Minor were promoted as most suited for the national dress until 1920s when attention shifted to clothes from Suvalkija. The shift can be attributed to relative abundance of old original clothing, which was rich in decorations and could compete with costumes of other European nations. A number of prominent activists, as President of Lithuania Kazys Grinius and his wife Joana Griuniuvienė, collected and promoted the clothing, especially aprons and sashes. At the time regional differences were not emphasized and cultural activists attempted to arrive to a single model of a "Lithuanian" national dress, based on samples from Suvalkija. The idea of global Lithuanian national dress was dropped in the 1930s in favor of regional costumes, unique to each of the ethnographic region.

Music

The musical traditions of Suvalkija are distinctive. The kanklės, possibly the most archaic Lithuanian instrument, took on distinguishable characteristics in the region; more heavily ornamented than elsewhere, its end is narrow, spreading out into a rounded shape. Recordings made in the 1930s, and reissued in the 21st century by the Institute of Lithuanian Literature and Folklore, contain waltzes, marches, schottisches, and krakowiaks. Popular polkas performed on the fiddle were a significant part of the local musicians' repertoire. The recordings from this era are monodic; there is usually one singer, and the music relies on variable modal structures, changes of tempo, and subtle ornamentation of the melody for interest.

The composition of the musical ensembles in the region changed during the middle 1800s. Earlier versions featured between one and three kanklės, a fiddle, and a būgnas (drum). Later ensembles often included one or two fiddles, a German or Viennese harmonica, a būgnas, and at times a cymbal, a clarinet, a coronet, or a besetle (a stringed bass). Ensembles featuring the fiddle and the būgnas were also popular.

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