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Tutankhamun (alternate transcription Tutankhamen), named Tutankhaten early in his life, was Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (ruled 1334 BC/1333 BC – 1323 BC, lived ca. 1341 BC – 1323 BC), during the period known as the New Kingdom. His original name, Tutankhaten, meant "Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun meant "Living Image of Amun". He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters.

In historical terms, Tutankhamun is of only moderate significance, primarily as a figure managing the beginning of the transition from the heretical Atenism of his predecessor Akhenaten back to the familiar Egyptian religion. As Tutankhamun began his reign at age 9, a considerable responsibility for his reign must also be assigned to his vizier and eventual successor, Ay. Nonetheless, Tutankhamun is in modern times the most famous of the Pharaohs, and the only one to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut"). The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of his (nearly) intact tomb received worldwide press coverage and sparked a renewed public interest in Ancient Egypt, which Tutankhamun remains the popular face of.

Life

Family

Tutankamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's son, but it is debated which king was meant. Most scholars think that he was probably a son either of Amenhotep III (though probably not by his Great Royal Wife Tiye), or of Amenhotep III's son Amenhotep IV (better known as Akhenaten), perhaps with his enigmatic second queen, Kiya. It should be noted that when Tutankhaten succeeded Akhenaten to the throne, Amenhotep III had been dead for some time; the duration is thought by some Egyptologists to have been seventeen years, although on this, as on so many questions about the Amarna period, there is no scholarly consensus. Tutankhamun ruled Egypt for eight to ten years; examinations of his mummy show that he was a young adult when he died. Recent CT scans place Tut at age 19. This conclusion was reached after images of Tut's teeth were examined, and were found to be consistent with the teeth of a 19 year old. That would place his birth around 1342 BC-1340 BC, and would make it less likely that Amenhotep III was his father.

Tutankhamun was married to Ankhesenpaaten, a daughter of Akhenaten. Ankhesenpaaten also changed her name from the -aten endings to the -amun ending, becoming Ankhesenamun. They had two known children, both stillborn – their mummies were discovered in his tomb.

Reign

During Tutankhamun's reign, Akhenaten's Amarna revolution (Atenism) began to be reversed. Akhenaten had attempted to supplant the existing priesthood and gods with a god who was until then considered minor, Aten. In year 3 of Tutankhamun's reign (1331 BC), when he was still a boy of about 11 and probably under the influence of two older advisors (notably Akhenaten's vizier Ay), the ban on the old pantheon of gods and their temples was lifted, the traditional privileges restored to their priesthoods, and the capital moved back to Thebes. The young pharaoh also adopted the name Tutankhamun, changing it from his birth name Tutankhaten. Because of his age at the time these decisions were made, it is generally thought that most if not all the responsibility for them falls on his vizier Ay and perhaps other advisors.

Events after his death

A now-famous letter to the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I from a widowed queen of Egypt, explaining her problems and asking for one of his sons as a husband, has been attributed to Ankhesenamun (among others). Suspicious of this good fortune, Suppiluliumas I first sent a messenger to make inquiries on the truth of the young queen's story. After reporting her plight back to Suppilulumas I, he sent his son, Zannanza, accepting her offer. However, he got no further than the border before he died, perhaps murdered. If Ankhesenamun were the queen in question, and his death a murder, it was probably at the orders of Horemheb or Ay, who both had the opportunity and the motive.

In any event, after Tutankhamun's death, Ankhesenamun married Ay (a signet ring, with both Ay and Ankehesenamun's name was found), possibly under coercion, and shortly afterwards disappeared from recorded history.

Tutankhamun was briefly succeeded by the elder of his two advisors, Ay, and then by the other, Horemheb, who obliterated most of the evidence of the reigns of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay.

Name

praenomen or throne name nomen or birth name
Tutankhamun in hieroglyphs
Era: New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC)

Under Atenism, Tutankhamun was named Tutankhaten, which in Egyptian hieroglyphs is:

Technically, this name is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉtn.

At the reintroduction of the old pantheon, his name was changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realised as Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning "Living image of Amun, ruler of Southern Heliopolis". On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a praenomen. This is transliterated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realised as Nebkheperure, meaning "Lord of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya in the Amarna letters may be a variation of this praenomen.

Cause of death

For a long time the cause of Tutankhamun's death was unknown, and was the root of much speculation. How old was the king when he died? Did he suffer from any physical abnormalities? Had he been murdered? Many of these questions were finally answered in early 2005 when the results of a set of CT scans on the mummy were released.

The body was originally inspected by Howard Carter’s team in the early 1920s, though they were primarily interested in recovering the jewelry and amulets from the body. To remove the objects from the body, which in many cases were stuck fast by the hardened embalming resins used, Carter's team cut up the mummy into various pieces: the arms and legs were detached, the torso cut in half and the head was severed, and the removed from the golden mask to which it was cemented by means of hot knives. Since the body was placed back in its sarcophagus in 1926, the mummy had subsequently been X-rayed twice: first in 1968 by a group from the University of Liverpool, and then in 1978 by a group from the University of Michigan.

X-rays of his mummy had revealed a dense spot at the lower back of the skull. This had been interpreted as a chronic subdural hematoma, which would have been caused by a blow. Such an injury could have been the result of an accident, but it had also been suggested that the young pharaoh was murdered. If this is the case, there are a number of theories as to who was responsible: one popular candidate was his immediate successor Ay. Interestingly, there are seemingly signs of calcification within the supposed injury, which if true meant Tutankhamun lived for a fairly extensive period of time (on the order of several months) after the injury was inflicted.

Much confusion had been caused by a small loose sliver of bone within the upper cranial cavity, which was discovered from the same X-ray analysis. Some people have mistaken this visible bone fragment for the supposed head injury. In fact, since Tutankhamun's brain was removed post mortem in the mummification process, and considerable quantities of now-hardened resin introduced into the skull on at least two separate occasions after that, had the fragment resulted from a pre-mortem injury, it almost certainly would not still be loose in the cranial cavity. It therefore almost certainly represented post-mummification damage.

2005 research

On March 8, 2005, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass revealed the results of a CT scan performed on the pharaoh's mummy. The scan uncovered no evidence for a blow to the back of the head as well as no evidence suggesting foul play. There was a hole in the head, but it appeared to have been drilled, presumably by embalmers. A fracture to Tutankhamun's left thighbone was interpreted as evidence that suggests the pharaoh badly broke his leg before he died, and his leg became infected; however, members of the Egyptian-led research team recognized as a less likely possibility that the fracture was caused by the embalmers. 1,700 images were produced of Tutankhamun's mummy during the 15-minute CT scan.

Much was learned about the young king's life. His age at death was estimated at 19 years, based on physical developments that set upper and lower limits to his age. The king had been in general good health, and there were no signs of any major infectious disease or malnutrition during childhood. He was slight of build, and was roughly 170 cm (5'7") tall. He had large front incisor teeth and the overbite characteristic of the rest of the Thutmosid line of kings to which he belonged. He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, though it was within normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathologic in cause. Given the fact that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten (possibly his father, certainly a relation), often featured an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family trait, rather than a distinct abnormality more typical of a condition like Marfan's syndrome, as had been suggested. A slight bend to his spine was also found, but the scientists agreed that that there was no associated evidence to suggest that it was pathological in nature, and that it was much more likely to have been caused during the embalming process. This ended speculation based on the previous X-rays that Tutanhkamun had suffered from scoliosis.

The 2005 conclusion by a team of Egyptian scientists, based on the CT scan findings, confirmed that Tutankhamun died of a swift attack of gangrene after breaking his leg. After consultations with Italian and Swiss experts, the Egyptian scientists found that the fracture in Tutankhamun's left leg most likely occurred only days before his death, which had then become gangrenous and led directly to his death. The fracture was not sustained during the mummification process or as a result of some damage to the mummy as claimed by Howard Carter. The Egyptian scientists have also found no evidence that he had been struck in the head and no other indication he was killed, as had been previously speculated.

Despite the relatively poor condition of the mummy, the Egyptian team found evidence that great care had been given to the body of Tutankhamun during the embalming process. They found five distinct embalming materials, which were applied to the body at various stages of the mummification process. This counters previous assertions that the king’s body had been prepared carelessly and in a hurry.

Tutankhamun in popular culture

Tutankhamun is the world's best known pharaoh, partly because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artefacts the most-exhibited. He has also entered popular culture - he has, for example, been commemorated in the whimsical song "King Tut" by comedian Steve Martin, and in a series of historical novels by Lynda Robinson. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his forward to the 1977 edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's kings has become in death the most renowned."

Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb

The Egyptologist Howard Carter (employed by Lord Carnarvon) discovered Tutankhamun's tomb (since designated KV62) in The Valley of The Kings on November 4, 1922 near the entrance to the tomb of Ramesses VI, thereby setting off a renewed interest in all things Egyptian in the modern world. (Subsequently, Egyptian motifs became a common element in Art Deco stylings throughout the world). Carter contacted his patron, and on November 26 that year both men became the first people to enter Tutankhamun's tomb in over 3000 years. After many weeks of careful excavation, on February 16, 1923 Carter opened the inner chamber and first saw the burial shrine of Tutankhamun, his sarcophagus surely within.

Tutankhamun's existence is believed to have been mostly forgotten not too long after his death, until the 20th century. As the empire of Ancient Egypt began to decline, in the eleventh and tenth centuries BCE, the Valley of Kings -- a literal "mountain of gold" with all the magnificent royal burials it concealed -- was stripped bare by desperate plunderers. Tutankhamun's burial site was forgotten by this time, thanks partially to the obfuscation of its entrance by the tomb of Ramesses VI, and so escaped total plunder -- but it did not escape robberies altogether. Evidence (opened and re-sealed doorways) suggests it was entered at least twice by avaricious thieves. Thankfully, for history's sake, these thieves only managed to take smaller items, such as jewelry, statuettes, and amulets. In one case, it appears the thieves -- no doubt the last -- left behind one of their quarries, as Howard Carter discovered a bundle of loose cloth discarded hurriedly on the floor of the antechamber, wrapping a cluster of precious golden rings. There were, apparently, no violations of Tutankhamun's tomb after the 20th dynasty.

Complete excavation took a staggering ten years, and in the end the number of artifacts unearthed totaled over 32,000. It remains the richest find ever in archaeology.

For many years after the initial discovery, rumors of a "curse" (probably fueled by sensationalist newspapers at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past 70. Carter himself, for example, lived to a healthy age.

Ancient Egyptian senet games were found in the tomb .

National Geographic's 2005 Facial Reconstruction

In 2005, three teams of scientists (Egyptian, French and American), in partnership with the National Geographic Society, were able to develop history's most accurate facial likeness of King Tutankhamun since the ancient embalmers cast his burial mask.

Three teams

The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 three-dimensional CT scans of the Pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams worked plastic molds created from these -- but the Americans were never told whom they were reconstructing.

All three teams created silicon molds bearing what decades of archaeological and forensic research show to be the most accurate replications of Tutankhamun's features since his royal artisans prepared the splendors of his tomb. As expected, the Americans -- uninfluenced by foreknowledge -- produced the most "natural" of the three busts, with the other two expressing subtle but perceptible prominences.

Negroid or Caucasoid an Honest look

In June, 2005, a radical Afrocentric group protested both the National Geographic Society's and the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities' new, CT-based depictions of the post-adolescent king (above left), on the basis that his skin appeared inaccurately pale. Archaeologists and Egyptologists were quick to point out that absolute determination of skin tone is impossible, since North Africans of the era varied in color. The problem is that the statues and the bust and the mask show the face of a negroid person. All you need to do is take a trip to tuts artifacts to confirm that most of the carvings and statues are of a negroid. Alabaster was used not to depict the boy kings color. Also bright gold is gold the use of bright gold does not mean the person was light skinned their is no such thing as brown gold so they used what they had.People who try to say that the alabaster jars are a true to Tuts face have to ignore the most of the other artifacts and paintings that show color. The alabaster jars are used to keep organs and was not used by the egyptians to show what Tut looks like. People who cling to the alabaster jars to say tut was light skinned cling to a weak and outdated excuse which not even modern egyptologists use in their claim for Tut being light skinned. To see what tut look liked you only need to look at the statues and bust of him that show his face with color or look at the paintings on the wall. People who ignore the majority of Tuts statues and busts and look only at the jars are people who are desperate to cling to something that is not there. People cannot just ignore most of Tuts statues and busts and say the alabaster jars are true to what Tut look like. The people who try to use the bright gold mask seem to forget that the features of the mask is negroid. Also evidence seems to point more and more that the Ancient egyptians were a nilotic that is to say East African people. In the most recent attempt to put a face on the long-dead monarch, three separate teams of Egyptian, French and American investigators each produced a reconstruction of what they determined to be an accurate likeness of King Tutankhamun. The Egyptian and French teams knew the identity of the subject whose face they were reconstructing, the Egyptians working from CT scans of the skull itself, the French and American teams working from identical plastic reproductions. The American team, however, did not know the identity of the specimen. According to widely publicized press reports, Zahi Hawass of Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities (SCA), announced that Tutankhamun was identified "correctly" as a "Caucasoid North African." Many argue, however, that the actual death mask of King Tutankhamun appears Negroid rather than Caucasoid.

The Egyptian team's "Caucasoid" reconstruction, which has been exhibited prominently as the "real" image of King Tutankhamun, has sparked considerable criticism. Afrocentrists have criticized the Egyptian team's decision to arbitrarily assign pale skin and hazel eyes to the young king based on modern-day, highly miscegenated, Arabized Egyptians of present-day Egypt, features which they contend do not properly reflect the eye or skin color of the average citizen of ancient dynastic Egypt, or of today's rural Egypt. Other Afrocentrists have argued that even mummy portraits of presumably highly miscegenated Egyptian subjects of the Roman era nearly 1,500 years after Tutankhamun's death reflect a blacker, more Afro-Semitic-looking Egyptian populace than is represented by the Egyptian reconstruction.

Apparently, the "Caucasoid North African" terminology has emanated from only Hawass, who has been accused by some of orchestrating a campaign to Arabize ancient dynastic Egypt. In an SCA press release dated May 10, 2005, the agency reported, "Based on this skull, the American and French teams both concluded that the subject was Caucasoid (the type of human typically found, for example, in North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East)."

However, in the words of Susan Anton, a member of the American team, "Our group did not, in fact, find Tut to be a 'Caucasoid North African.' We classified him as African based on many of the features...." Anton noted that this was done regardless of the fact that the nasal cavity was relatively narrow, because the metrics were within the range of probability for the Nilotic peoples of the region. With regard to any finding of European origins, Anton commented that, in light of the cumulative evidence, she "determined the statistical association was very low and, therefore, based on the nonmetric characters, was not likely to be accurate." "... it would have been less confusing," Anton added, "if that terminology had not been used." "I think his features are consistent with him being African."

Anton refused, however, to assign a specific racial designation to the specimen, citing inherent problems with the concept of race. Neither did the Americans— or the French, for that matter— assign skin or eye color. Referring to the skull's pronounced dolichocephalism, alveolar prognathism, "large teeth," receding chin and sloping cranium, Antуn stated she was "in general agreement that, based on the cranial skeleton, an estimate of African is appropriate. What that implies in terms of skin color," she added, referring to the Egyptian team's reconstruction, "is an inference."

Further reading

• Howard Carter, Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0486235009
  • The semi-popular account of the discover and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
• C. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0500050589 (hardcover)/ISBN 0500278105 (paperback)
  • Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
• T. G. H. James, Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1586630326 (hardcover)
  • A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
• Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0821201514 (1976 reprint, hardcover)/ISBN 0140116656 (1990 reprint, paperback)
  • A useful early work covering the environment as well as his tomb
• Thomas Hoving, The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0671243055 (hardcover)/ISBN 0815411863 (paperback)
  • This book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb
• Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0425166899 (paperback)/ISBN 0399143831 (hardcover)/ISBN 0613289676 (School & Library Binding)
  • This book contains useful information about Tutankhamun's medical condition
• Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Treasures of Tutankhamun. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN 0345273494 (paperback)/ISBN 0670727237 (hardcover)
• Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.

External links

• End Paper: A New Take on Tut's Parents by Dennis Forbes (KMT 8:3 . FALL . 1997 � KMT Communications)
• The mummy's curse: historical cohort study (Mark R Nelson, British Medical Journal 2002;325:1482-1484)
• Tutankhamun profile
• Life of King Tut
• Mummy Mania Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs
• Tutankhamun - Interactive Egypt E-Learning application covering ancient Egypt's history and the Pharaoh in detail.
• Thomb contents gallery

Appearance/death

• Putting a Face on King Tut Wired Magazine
• The Face of King Tut: The controversy over skin color NPR
• Experts Seek King Tut's Cause of Death
• Tutankhamun Examined in a CT Scanner
• King Tut @ National Geographic Magazine
• King Tut's skin color a topic of controversy

Template:Pharaoh

• 1341 BC births
• 1323 BC deaths
• Pharaohs
• Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt
• Curses
• Mummies
• Amarna Period