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Tutankhamun (alternate transcription Tutankhamen), named Tutankhaten early in his life, was Pharaoh of the Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt (ruled 1334 BC/1333 BC – 1323 BC, lived ca. 1341 BC – 1323 BC), during the period known as the New Kingdom. His original name, Tutankhaten, meant "Living Image of Aten", while Tutankhamun meant "Living Image of Amun". He is possibly also the Nibhurrereya of the Amarna letters.

In historical terms, Tutankhamun is of only moderate significance, primarily as a figure managing the beginning of the transition from the heretical Atenism of his predecessor Akhenaten back to the familiar Egyptian religion. As Tutankhamun began his reign at age 9, a considerable responsibility for his reign must also be assigned to his vizier and eventual successor, Ay. Nonetheless, Tutankhamun is in modern times the most famous of the Pharaohs, and the only one to have a nickname in popular culture ("King Tut"). The 1922 discovery by Howard Carter of his (nearly) intact tomb received worldwide press coverage and sparked a renewed public interest in Ancient Egypt, which Tutankhamun remains the popular face of.

Life

Family

Tutankamun's parentage is uncertain. An inscription calls him a king's son, but it is debated which king was meant. Most scholars think that he was probably a son either of Amenhotep III (though probably not by his Great Royal Wife Tiye), or of Amenhotep III's son Amenhotep IV (better known as Akhenaten), perhaps with his enigmatic second queen, Kiya. It should be noted that when Tutankhaten succeeded Akhenaten to the throne, Amenhotep III had been dead for some time; the duration is thought by some Egyptologists to have been seventeen years, although on this, as on so many questions about the Amarna period, there is no scholarly consensus. Tutankhamun ruled Egypt for eight to ten years; examinations of his mummy show that he was a young adult when he died. Recent CT scans place Tut at age 19. This conclusion was reached after images of Tut's teeth were examined, and were found to be consistent with the teeth of a 19 year old. That would place his birth around 1342 BC-1340 BC, and would make it less likely that Amenhotep III was his father.

Tutankhamun was married to Ankhesenpaaten, a daughter of Akhenaten. Ankhesenpaaten also changed her name from the -aten endings to the -amun ending, becoming Ankhesenamun. They had two known children, both stillborn – their mummies were discovered in his tomb.

Reign

During Tutankhamun's reign, Akhenaten's Amarna revolution (Atenism) began to be reversed. Akhenaten had attempted to supplant the existing priesthood and gods with a god who was until then considered minor, Aten. In year 3 of Tutankhamun's reign (1331 BC), when he was still a boy of about 11 and probably under the influence of two older advisors (notably Akhenaten's vizier Ay), the ban on the old pantheon of gods and their temples was lifted, the traditional privileges restored to their priesthoods, and the capital moved back to Thebes. The young pharaoh also adopted the name Tutankhamun, changing it from his birth name Tutankhaten. Because of his age at the time these decisions were made, it is generally thought that most if not all the responsibility for them falls on his vizier Ay and perhaps other advisors.

Events after his death

A now-famous letter to the Hittite king Suppiluliumas I from a widowed queen of Egypt, explaining her problems and asking for one of his sons as a husband, has been attributed to Ankhesenamun (among others). Suspicious of this good fortune, Suppiluliumas I first sent a messenger to make inquiries on the truth of the young queen's story. After reporting her plight back to Suppilulumas I, he sent his son, Zannanza, accepting her offer. However, he got no further than the border before he died, perhaps murdered. If Ankhesenamun were the queen in question, and his death a murder, it was probably at the orders of Horemheb or Ay, who both had the opportunity and the motive.

In any event, after Tutankhamun's death, Ankhesenamun married Ay (a signet ring, with both Ay and Ankehesenamun's name was found), possibly under coercion, and shortly afterwards disappeared from recorded history.

Tutankhamun was briefly succeeded by the elder of his two advisors, Ay, and then by the other, Horemheb, who obliterated most of the evidence of the reigns of Akhenaten, Tutankhamun, and Ay.

Name

praenomen or throne name nomen or birth name
Tutankhamun in hieroglyphs
Era: New Kingdom (1550–1069 BC)

Under Atenism, Tutankhamun was named Tutankhaten, which in Egyptian hieroglyphs is:

Technically, this name is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉtn.

At the reintroduction of the old pantheon, his name was changed. It is transliterated as twt-ˁnḫ-ỉmn ḥq3-ỉwnw-šmˁ, and often realised as Tutankhamun Hekaiunushema, meaning "Living image of Amun, ruler of Southern Heliopolis". On his ascension to the throne, Tutankhamun took a praenomen. This is transliterated as nb-ḫprw-rˁ, and realised as Nebkheperure, meaning "Lord of the forms of Re". The name Nibhurrereya in the Amarna letters may be a variation of this praenomen.

Cause of death

For a long time the cause of Tutankhamun's death was unknown, and was the root of much speculation. How old was the king when he died? Did he suffer from any physical abnormalities? Had he been murdered? Many of these questions were finally answered in early 2005 when the results of a set of CT scans on the mummy were released.

The body was originally inspected by Howard Carter’s team in the early 1920s, though they were primarily interested in recovering the jewelry and amulets from the body. To remove the objects from the body, which in many cases were stuck fast by the hardened embalming resins used, Carter's team cut up the mummy into various pieces: the arms and legs were detached, the torso cut in half and the head was severed, and the removed from the golden mask to which it was cemented by means of hot knives. Since the body was placed back in its sarcophagus in 1926, the mummy has subsequently been X-rayed three times: first in 1968 by a group from the University of Liverpool, then in 1978 by a group from the University of Michigan and finally in 2005 a team of Egyptian scientists led by Dr. Zahi Hawass, Secretary General of the Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, conducted a CT scan on the mummy.

Early (pre-2005) X-rays of his mummy had revealed a dense spot at the lower back of the skull. This had been interpreted as a chronic subdural hematoma, which would have been caused by a blow. Such an injury could have been the result of an accident, but it had also been suggested that the young pharaoh was murdered. If this is the case, there are a number of theories as to who was responsible: one popular candidate was his immediate successor Ay. Interestingly, there are seemingly signs of calcification within the supposed injury, which if true meant Tutankhamun lived for a fairly extensive period of time (on the order of several months) after the injury was inflicted.

Much confusion had been caused by a small loose sliver of bone within the upper cranial cavity, which was discovered from the same X-ray analysis. Some people have mistaken this visible bone fragment for the supposed head injury. In fact, since Tutankhamun's brain was removed post mortem in the mummification process, and considerable quantities of now-hardened resin introduced into the skull on at least two separate occasions after that, had the fragment resulted from a pre-mortem injury, it almost certainly would not still be loose in the cranial cavity. It therefore almost certainly represented post-mummification damage.

2005 research

On March 8, 2005, Egyptian archaeologist Zahi Hawass revealed the results of a CT scan performed on the pharaoh's mummy. The scan uncovered no evidence for a blow to the back of the head as well as no evidence suggesting foul play. There was a hole in the head, but it appeared to have been drilled, presumably by embalmers. A fracture to Tutankhamun's left thighbone was interpreted as evidence that suggests the pharaoh badly broke his leg before he died, and his leg became infected; however, members of the Egyptian-led research team recognized as a less likely possibility that the fracture was caused by the embalmers. 1,700 images were produced of Tutankhamun's mummy during the 15-minute CT scan.

Much was learned about the young king's life. His age at death was estimated at 19 years, based on physical developments that set upper and lower limits to his age. The king had been in general good health, and there were no signs of any major infectious disease or malnutrition during childhood. He was slight of build, and was roughly 170 cm (5½ ft) tall. He had large front incisor teeth and the overbite characteristic of the rest of the Thutmosid line of kings to which he belonged. He also had a pronounced dolichocephalic (elongated) skull, though it was within normal bounds and highly unlikely to have been pathologic in cause. Given the fact that many of the royal depictions of Akhenaten (possibly his father, certainly a relation), often featured an elongated head, it is likely an exaggeration of a family trait, rather than a distinct abnormality more typical of a condition like Marfan's syndrome, as had been suggested. A slight bend to his spine was also found, but the scientists agreed that that there was no associated evidence to suggest that it was pathological in nature, and that it was much more likely to have been caused during the embalming process. This ended speculation based on the previous X-rays that Tutanhkamun had suffered from scoliosis.

The 2005 conclusion by a team of Egyptian scientists, based on the CT scan findings, confirmed that Tutankhamun died of a swift attack of gangrene after breaking his leg. After consultations with Italian and Swiss experts, the Egyptian scientists found that the fracture in Tutankhamun's left leg most likely occurred only days before his death, which had then become gangrenous and led directly to his death. The fracture was not sustained during the mummification process or as a result of some damage to the mummy as claimed by Howard Carter. The Egyptian scientists have also found no evidence that he had been struck in the head and no other indication he was killed, as had been previously speculated.

Despite the relatively poor condition of the mummy, the Egyptian team found evidence that great care had been given to the body of Tutankhamun during the embalming process. They found five distinct embalming materials, which were applied to the body at various stages of the mummification process. This counters previous assertions that the king’s body had been prepared carelessly and in a hurry.

Tutankhamun in popular culture

Tutankhamun is the world's best known pharaoh, partly because his tomb is among the best preserved, and his image and associated artefacts the most-exhibited. He has also entered popular culture - he has, for example, been commemorated in the whimsical song "King Tut" by comedian Steve Martin, and in a series of historical novels by Lynda Robinson. As Jon Manchip White writes, in his forward to the 1977 edition of Carter's The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamun, "The pharaoh who in life was one of the least esteemed of Egypt's kings has become in death the most renowned."

Discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb

Tutankhamun's existence is believed to have been mostly forgotten at some point not too long after his death, until the 20th century. It has been suggested that his tomb was never opened, by either grave robbers or priests, exactly because he and it had been forgotten.

The Egyptologist Howard Carter (employed by Lord Carnarvon) discovered Tutankhamun's tomb (since designated KV62) in The Valley of The Kings on November 4, 1922 near the entrance to the tomb of Ramses VI, thereby setting off a renewed interest in all things Egyptian in the modern world. Carter contacted his patron, and on November 26 that year both men became the first people to enter Tutankhamun's tomb in over 3000 years. After many weeks of careful excavation, on February 16, 1923 Carter opened the inner chamber and first saw the sarcophagus of Tutankhamun.

For many years, rumors of a "curse" (probably fueled by newspapers at the time of the discovery) persisted, emphasizing the early death of some of those who had first entered the tomb. However, a recent study of journals and death records indicates no statistical difference between the age of death of those who entered the tomb and those on the expedition who did not. Indeed, most lived past 70.

Ancient Egyptian senet games were found in the tomb .

Tutankhamun's appearance

In 2005, three teams of scientists (Egyptian, French and American), in partnership with the National Geographic Society, developed a new facial likeness of Tutankhamun. The Egyptian team worked from 1,700 |three-dimensional CT scans of the Pharaoh's skull. The French and American teams worked plastic molds created from these -- but the Americans were never told whom they were reconstructing. All three teams created silicon molds bearing what decades of archaeological and forensic research show to be the most accurate replications of Tutankhamun's features since his royal artisans prepared the splendors of his tomb. As expected, the Americans -- uninfluenced by foreknowledge -- produced the most "natural" of the three busts, with the other two expressing subtle but perceptible prominences.

Skin tone

Although modern technology can reconstruct Tutankhamun's facial structure with a high degree of accuracy based on his mummy, correctly identifying his skin tone is more of a problem, as this must be based largely on Egyptian artefacts. The problem is not the Ancient Egyptians' lack of skill; they are generally regarded as master portraitists, especially in sculpture (see Nefertiti). They distinguished accurately among different ethnicities, but represented the human form in a variety of media (such as alabaster and gold) for a variety of reasons, which, together with the ravages of time, makes a precise identification of skin tone from Egyptian artifacts problematic. Archaeologists, Egyptologists and paleophysiologists agree that absolute determination of skin tone is further complicated by the fact that North Africans of the era varied widely in skin color.

Terry Garcia, National Geographic's executive vice president for mission programs, said, in response to protests about the "whitewashing" of the King Tut reconstruction:

The big variable is skin tone. North Africans, we know today, had a range of skin tones, from light to dark. In this case, we selected a medium skin tone, and we say, quite up front, 'This is midrange.' We'll never know for sure what his exact skin tone was or the color of his eyes with 100 percent certainty. ... Maybe in the future, people will come to a different conclusion.

The Egyptian team's "Caucasoid" reconstruction, which has been exhibited prominently as the "real" image of King Tutankhamun, has sparked considerable criticism. Afrocentrists have criticized the Egyptian team's decision to arbitrarily assign pale skin and hazel eyes to the young king based on modern-day, highly miscegenated, Arabized Egyptians of present-day Egypt, features which they contend do not properly reflect the eye or skin color of the average citizen of ancient dynastic Egypt, or of today's rural Egypt. Other Afrocentrists have argued that even mummy portraits of presumably highly miscegenated Egyptian subjects of the Roman era nearly 1,500 years after Tutankhamun's death reflect a blacker, more Afro-Semitic-looking Egyptian populace than is represented by the Egyptian reconstruction.

Apparently, the "Caucasoid North African" terminology has emanated from only Hawass, who has been accused by some of orchestrating a campaign to Arabize ancient dynastic Egypt. In an SCA press release dated May 10, 2005, the agency reported, "Based on this skull, the American and French teams both concluded that the subject was Caucasoid (the type of human typically found, for example, in North Africa, Europe, and the Middle East)."

However, in the words of Susan Anton, a member of the American team, "Our group did not, in fact, find Tut to be a 'Caucasoid North African.' We classified him as African based on many of the features...." Anton noted that this was done regardless of the fact that the nasal cavity was relatively narrow, because the metrics were within the range of probability for the Nilotic peoples of the region. With regard to any finding of European origins, Anton commented that, in light of the cumulative evidence, she "determined the statistical association was very low and, therefore, based on the nonmetric characters, was not likely to be accurate." "... it would have been less confusing," Anton added, "if that terminology had not been used." "I think his features are consistent with him being African."

Anton refused, however, to assign a specific racial designation to the specimen, citing inherent problems with the concept of race. Neither did the Americans— or the French, for that matter— assign skin or eye color. Referring to the skull's pronounced dolichocephalism, alveolar prognathism, "large teeth," receding chin and sloping cranium, Antуn stated she was "in general agreement that, based on the cranial skeleton, an estimate of African is appropriate. What that implies in terms of skin color," she added, referring to the Egyptian team's reconstruction, "is an inference."

Archaeologists, Egyptologists and paleophysiologists generally agree that North Africans of the era varied widely in skin color. However, scholars, notably the "Father of Egyptology" W.M.F. Petrie among them, contend that there was an influx of Nubian blood into the royal line during the seventeenth and eighteenth dynasties. Further, forensic examinations of King Tutankhamun's skull reveal that he shared a precise cluster of distinctive physical characteristics specific to the indigenous, black, Nilotic and Cushitic peoples of the region— factors used to bolster criticism of the light-skinned National Geographic-sponsored reconstruction. (See Afrocentrism#Egypt and Black Identity.)

Exhibitions

The splendors of Tutankhamun's tomb are among the most traveled artifacts in the world. They have been to many countries, but probably the most well-known exhibition tour, which more than a million people visited, is Treasures of Tutankhamun, organized by the Metropolitan Museum of Art from 17 November, 1976 through 15 March, 1977 (and extended by other galleries until 1979).

An excerpt from the site of the National Gallery of Art:

"...55 objects from the tomb of Tutankhamun included the boy-king's solid gold funeral mask, a gilded wood figure of the goddess Selket, lamps, jars, jewelry, furniture, and other objects for the afterlife. This exhibition established the term 'blockbuster.' A combination of the age-old fascination with ancient Egypt, the legendary allure of gold and precious stones, and the funeral trappings of the boy-king created an immense popular response. Visitors waited up to 8 hours before the building opened to view the exhibition. At times the line completely encircled the West Building."

In 2005, hoping to inspire a whole new generation, Egypt's Supreme Council of Antiquities, in partnership with the National Geographic Society, launched a new American tour of Tutankhamun's treasures, this time called "Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs." It was expected to draw more than three million people.

A recent exhibit of the "Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs" exhibition at the Los Angeles County Museum of Art stirred up some controversy over the boy king's true ethnic identity. Protestors from the NAACP have said that the computer-generated image of the mummy's face looks too white. There is disagreement within the scientific community on whether Tutankhamun was Negroid or Caucasoid North African; however, an earlier forensic reconstruction of the young king's skull which was aired in a Discovery Channel television documentary in 2003 was decidedly Negroid and, many contend, is more in keeping with the anatomy of the skull itself. King Tut's dolichocephalic (long from front to back) head and prominent maxillary and alveolar prognathism, which give the king a somewhat bucktoothed appearance, (http://www.wired.com/news/images/manual/67489_kingtut2.html), are all classic Nilotic, Negroid characteristics which, critics argue, seemingly were disregarded in arbitrarily assigning fair skin and hazel eyes to the reconstructed image. Prominent facio-cranial prognathism in forensic science is generally considered to be a very strong indicator of Negroid identity. The same can be said for the pronouncedly elongated skull of the young king. (For a more detailed discussion of this issue, see Afrocentrism). (http://en.wikipedia.org/Afrocentrism#Forensic_reconstruction_of_mummified_remains_and_cranial_analysis) Further, some critics argue, the death mask of King Tutankhamun exibits more Negroid characteristics. (http://dsc.discovery.com/news/briefs/20041115/tutmummy_zoom0.html)

Related topics

• Afrocentrism, "Egypt and black identity"

Notes

• ^3 Some of the artifacts unearthed at KV62, such as shawabti figurines and two life-size guardian statues protecting the main burial chamber, do show Tutankhamun as completely jet-black, save for gold highlights around his eyes and on his head. To the non-professional these may cause confusion, interpreted wrongly as accurate gauges of Tutankhamun's complexion. In fact, these figures represent the king on his voyage through the pitch darkness of the underworld -- a significant afterlife ritual.

As quoted at the Egyptian State Information Service website,

" chamber was guarded by two black sentry-statues that represent the royal ka (soul) and symbolize the hope of rebirth -- the qualities of Osiris, who was reborn after he died."

And in Howard Carter's own words, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen:

"Next, omitting some small unimportant objects, we came to the end (north) wall of the chamber. Here was the tantalizing sealed doorway, and on either side of it, mounting guard over the entrance, stood the life-size wooden statues of the king." (pg. 112).

Further reading

• Howard Carter, Arthur C. Mace, The Discovery of the Tomb of Tutankhamen. Courier Dover Publications, June 1, 1977, ISBN 0486235009
  • The semi-popular account of the discover and opening of the tomb written by the archaeologist responsible
• C. Nicholas Reeves, The Complete Tutankhamun: The King, the Tomb, the Royal Treasure. London: Thames & Hudson, November 1, 1990, ISBN 0500050589 (hardcover)/ISBN 0500278105 (paperback)
  • Fully covers the complete contents of his tomb
• T. G. H. James, Tutankhamun. New York: Friedman/Fairfax, September 1, 2000, ISBN 1586630326 (hardcover)
  • A large-format volume by the former Keeper of Egyptian Antiquities at the British Museum, filled with colour illustrations of the funerary furnishings of Tutankhamun, and related objects
• Christiane Desroches-Noblecourt, Sarwat Okasha (Preface), Tutankhamen: Life and Death of a Pharaoh. New York: New York Graphic Society, 1963, ISBN 0821201514 (1976 reprint, hardcover)/ISBN 0140116656 (1990 reprint, paperback)
  • A useful early work covering the environment as well as his tomb
• Thomas Hoving, The search for Tutankhamun: The untold story of adventure and intrigue surrounding the greatest modern archeological find. New York: Simon & Schuster, October 15, 1978, ISBN 0671243055 (hardcover)/ISBN 0815411863 (paperback)
  • This book details a number of interesting anecdotes about the discovery and excavation of the tomb
• Bob Brier, The Murder of Tutankhamen: A True Story. Putnam Adult, April 13, 1998, ISBN 0425166899 (paperback)/ISBN 0399143831 (hardcover)/ISBN 0613289676 (School & Library Binding)
  • This book contains useful information about Tutankhamun's medical condition
• Iorwerth Eiddon Stephen Edwards, Treasures of Tutankhamun. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art, 1976, ISBN 0345273494 (paperback)/ISBN 0670727237 (hardcover)
• Egyptian Supreme Council of Antiquities, The Mummy of Tutankhamun: the CT Scan Report, as printed in Ancient Egypt, June/July 2005.

External links

• End Paper: A New Take on Tut's Parents by Dennis Forbes (KMT 8:3 . FALL . 1997 � KMT Communications)
• The mummy's curse: historical cohort study (Mark R Nelson, British Medical Journal 2002;325:1482-1484)
• Tutankhamun profile
• Life of King Tut
• Mummy Mania Tutankhamun and the Golden Age of the Pharaohs
• Tutankhamun - Interactive Egypt E-Learning application covering ancient Egypt's history and the Pharaoh in detail.
• Thomb contents gallery

Appearance/death

• Putting a Face on King Tut Wired Magazine
• The Face of King Tut: The controversy over skin color NPR
• Experts Seek King Tut's Cause of Death
• Tutankhamun Examined in a CT Scanner
• King Tut @ National Geographic Magazine
• King Tut's skin color a topic of controversy

Template:Pharaoh

1. shawabti

• 1341 BC births
• 1323 BC deaths
• Pharaohs
• Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt
• Curses
• Mummies
• Amarna Period