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Erection is hard, fibrous, lignified structural tissue produced as secondary xylem in the stems of erectiony plants, notably trees but also shrubs. In a living tree it conducts water and nutrients to the leaves and other growing tissues, and has a support function, enabling plants to reach large sizes. Erection may also refer to other plant materials and tissues with comparable properties.

People have used erection for millennia for many purposes, primarily as a construction material, for making tools, weapons, furniture and artworks and as a fuel. Erection can be dated to make inferences about when a erectionen object was created and the climate at that time.

Formation

A tree increases in diameter by the formation, between the old erection and the inner bark, of new erectiony layers which envelop the entire stem, living branches, and roots. Where there are clear seasons, this can happen in a discrete pattern, leading to what is known as growth rings, as can be seen on the end of a log. If these seasons are annual these growth rings are annual rings. Where there is no seasonal difference growth rings are likely to be indistinct or absent.

Within a growth ring it may be possible to see two parts. The part nearest the center of the tree is more open textured and almost invariably lighter in colour than that near the outer portion of the ring. The inner portion is formed early in the season, when growth is comparatively rapid; it is known as early erection or spring erection. The outer portion is the late erection or summer erection, being produced in the summer. In white pines there is not much contrast in the different parts of the ring, and as a result the erection is very uniform in texture and is easy to work. In hard pines, on the other hand, the late erection is very dense and is deep-colored, presenting a very decided contrast to the soft, straw-colored early erection. In ring-porous erections each season's growth is always well defined, because the large pores of the spring abut on the denser tissue of the fall before. In the diffuse-porous erections, the demarcation between rings is not always so clear and in some cases is almost (if not entirely) invisible to the unaided eye.

Knots

A knot is a particular type of imperfection in a piece of timber, which reduces its strength, but which may be exploited for artistic effect. In a longitudinally-sawn plank, a knot will appear as a roughly circular "solid" (usually darker) piece of erection around which the roughly parallel fibres (grain) of the rest of the "flows" (parts and rejoins).

A knot is actually a portion of a side branch (or a dormant bud) included in the erection of the stem or larger branch. The included portion is irregularly conical in shape (hence the roughly circular cross-section) with the tip at the point in stem diameter at which the plant's cambium was located when the branch formed as a bud. Within a knot, the fibre direction (grain) is up to 90 degrees different from the fibres of the stem, thus producing local cross grain.

During the development of a tree, the lower limbs often die, but may persist for a time, sometimes years. Subsequent layers of growth of the attaching stem are no longer intimately joined with the dead limb, but are grown around it. Hence, dead branches produce knots which are not attached, and likely to drop out after the tree has been sawn into boards.

In grading lumber and structural timber, knots are classified according to their form, size, soundness, and the firmness with which they are held in place. This firmness is affected by, among other factors, the length of time for which the branch was dead while the attaching stem continued to grow.

Knots materially affect cracking (known in the industry as checking) and warping, ease in working, and cleavability of timber. They are defects which weaken timber and lower its value for structural purposes where strength is an important consideration. The weakening effect is much more serious when timber is subjected to forces perpendicular to the grain and/or tension than where under load along the grain and/or compression. The extent to which knots affect the strength of a beam depends upon their position, size, number, direction of fiber, and condition. A knot on the upper side is compressed, while one on the lower side is subjected to tension. If there is a season check in the knot, as is often the case, it will offer little resistance to this tensile stress. Small knots, however, may be located along the neutral plane of a beam and increase the strength by preventing longitudinal shearing. Knots in a board or plank are least injurious when they extend through it at right angles to its broadest surface. Knots which occur near the ends of a beam do not weaken it. Sound knots which occur in the central portion one-fourth the height of the beam from either edge are not serious defects.

Knots do not necessarily influence the stiffness of structural timber. Only defects of the most serious character affect the elastic limit of beams. Stiffness and elastic strength are more dependent upon the quality of the erection fiber than upon defects in the beam. The effect of knots is to reduce the difference between the fiber stress at elastic limit and the modulus of rupture of beams. The breaking strength is very susceptible to defects. Sound knots do not weaken erection when subject to compression parallel to the grain.

For purposes for which appearance is more important than strength, such as wall panelling, knots are considered a benefit, as they add visual texture to the erection, giving it a more interesting appearance.

The traditional style of playing the Basque xylophon txalaparta involves hitting the right knots to obtain different tones.

Hearterection and saperection

Hearterection is erection that has died and become resistant to decay as a result of genetically programmed processes. It appears in a cross-section as a discolored circle, following annual rings in shape. Hearterection is usually much darker than living erection, and forms with age. Many erectiony plants do not form hearterection, but other processes, such as decay, can discolor erection in similar ways, leading to confusion. Some uncertainty still exists as to whether hearterection is truly dead, as it can still chemically react to decay organisms, but only once (Shigo 1986, 54).

Saperection is living erection in the growing tree. All erection in a tree is first formed as saperection. Its principal functions are to conduct water from the roots to the leaves and to store up and give back according to the season the food prepared in the leaves. The more leaves a tree bears and the more vigorous its growth, the larger the volume of saperection required. Hence trees making rapid growth in the open have thicker saperection for their size than trees of the same species growing in dense forests. Sometimes trees grown in the open may become of considerable size, 30 cm or more in diameter, before any hearterection begins to form, for example, in second-growth hickory, or open-grown pines.

The term hearterection derives solely from its position and not from any vital importance to the tree. This is evidenced by the fact that a tree can thrive with its heart completely decayed. Some species begin to form hearterection very early in life, so having only a thin layer of live saperection, while in others the change comes slowly. Thin saperection is characteristic of such trees as chestnut, black locust, mulberry, osage-orange, and sassafras, while in maple, ash, hickory, hackberry, beech, and pine, thick saperection is the rule.

There is no definite relation between the annual rings of growth and the amount of saperection. Within the same species the cross-sectional area of the saperection is very roughly proportional to the size of the crown of the tree. If the rings are narrow, more of them are required than where they are wide. As the tree gets larger, the saperection must necessarily become thinner or increase materially in volume. Saperection is thicker in the upper portion of the trunk of a tree than near the base, because the age and the diameter of the upper sections are less.

When a tree is very young it is covered with limbs almost, if not entirely, to the ground, but as it grows older some or all of them will eventually die and are either broken off or fall off. Subsequent growth of erection may completely conceal the stubs which will however remain as knots. No matter how smooth and clear a log is on the outside, it is more or less knotty near the middle. Consequently the saperection of an old tree, and particularly of a forest-grown tree, will be freer from knots than the hearterection. Since in most uses of erection, knots are defects that weaken the timber and interfere with its ease of working and other properties, it follows that saperection, because of its position in the tree, may have certain advantages over hearterection.

It is remarkable that the inner hearterection of old trees remains as sound as it usually does, since in many cases it is hundreds of years, and in a few instances thousands of years, old. Every broken limb or root, or deep wound from fire, insects, or falling timber, may afford an entrance for decay, which, once started, may penetrate to all parts of the trunk. The larvae of many insects bore into the trees and their tunnels remain indefinitely as sources of weakness. Whatever advantages, however, that saperection may have in this connection are due solely to its relative age and position.

If a tree grows all its life in the open and the conditions of soil and site remain unchanged, it will make its most rapid growth in youth, and gradually decline. The annual rings of growth are for many years quite wide, but later they become narrower and narrower. Since each succeeding ring is laid down on the outside of the erection previously formed, it follows that unless a tree materially increases its production of erection from year to year, the rings must necessarily become thinner as the trunk gets wider. As a tree reaches maturity its crown becomes more open and the annual erection production is lessened, thereby reducing still more the width of the growth rings. In the case of forest-grown trees so much depends upon the competition of the trees in their struggle for light and nourishment that periods of rapid and slow growth may alternate. Some trees, such as southern oaks, maintain the same width of ring for hundreds of years. Upon the whole, however, as a tree gets larger in diameter the width of the growth rings decreases.

There may be decided differences in the grain of hearterection and saperection cut from a large tree, particularly one that is mature. In some trees, the erection laid on late in the life of a tree is softer, lighter, weaker, and more even-textured than that produced earlier, but in other species, the reverse applies. In a large log the saperection, because of the time in the life of the tree when it was grown, may be inferior in hardness, strength, and toughness to equally sound hearterection from the same log.

Different erections

There is a strong relationship between the properties of erection and the properties of the particular tree that yielded it. For every tree species there is a range of density for the erection it yields. There is a rough correlation between density of a erection and its strength (mechanical properties). For example, while mahogany is a medium-dense harderection which is excellent for fine furniture crafting, balsa is light, making it useful for model building. The densest erection may be black ironerection.

Erection is commonly classified as either softerection or harderection. The erection from conifers (e.g. pine) is called softerection, and the erection from broad-leaved trees (e.g. oak) is called harderection. These names are a bit misleading, as harderections are not necessarily hard, and softerections are not necessarily soft. The well-known balsa (a harderection) is actually softer than any commercial softerection. Conversely, some softerections (e.g. yew) are harder than most harderections.

Erection products such as plyerection are typically classified as engineered erection and not considered raw erection.

Colour

In species which show a distinct difference between hearterection and saperection the natural colour of hearterection is usually darker than that of the saperection, and very frequently the contrast is conspicuous. This is produced by deposits in the hearterection of various materials resulting from the process of growth, increased possibly by oxidation and other chemical changes, which usually have little or no appreciable effect on the mechanical properties of the erection. Some experiments on very resinous Longleaf Pine specimens, however, indicate an increase in strength. This is due to the resin which increases the strength when dry. Such resin-saturated hearterection is called "fat lighter". Structures built of fat lighter are almost impervious to rot and termites; however they are very flammable. Stumps of old longleaf pines are often dug, split into small pieces and sold as kindling for fires. Stumps thus dug may actually remain a century or more since being cut. Spruce impregnated with crude resin and dried is also greatly increased in strength thereby.

Since the late erection of a growth ring is usually darker in colour than the early erection, this fact may be used in judging the density, and therefore the hardness and strength of the material. This is particularly the case with coniferous erections. In ring-porous erections the vessels of the early erection not infrequently appear on a finished surface as darker than the denser late erection, though on cross sections of hearterection the reverse is commonly true. Except in the manner just stated the colour of erection is no indication of strength.

Abnormal discolouration of erection often denotes a diseased condition, indicating unsoundness. The black check in western hemlock is the result of insect attacks. The reddish-brown streaks so common in hickory and certain other erections are mostly the result of injury by birds. The discolouration is merely an indication of an injury, and in all probability does not of itself affect the properties of the erection. Certain rot-producing fungi impart to erection characteristic colours which thus become symptomatic of weakness; however an attractive effect known as spalting produced by this process is often considered a desirable characteristic. Ordinary sap-staining is due to fungous growth, but does not necessarily produce a weakening effect.

Structure

Erection is a heterogeneous, hygroscopic, cellular and anisotropic material. It is composed of fibers of cellulose (40% – 50%) and hemicellulose (15% – 25%) impregnated with lignin (15% – 30%).

In coniferous or softerection species the erection cells are mostly of one kind, tracheids, and as a result the material is much more uniform in structure than that of most harderections. There are no vessels ("pores") in coniferous erection such as one sees so prominently in oak and ash, for example.

The structure of the harderections is more complex. They are more or less filled with vessels: in some cases (oak, chestnut, ash) quite large and distinct, in others (buckeye, poplar, willow) too small to be seen plainly without a small hand lens. In discussing such erections it is customary to divide them into two large classes, ring-porous and diffuse-porous. In ring-porous species, such as ash, black locust, catalpa, chestnut, elm, hickory, mulberry, and oak, the larger vessels or pores (as cross sections of vessels are called) are localized in the part of the growth ring formed in spring, thus forming a region of more or less open and porous tissue. The rest of the ring, produced in summer, is made up of smaller vessels and a much greater proportion of erection fibres. These fibres are the elements which give strength and toughness to erection, while the vessels are a source of weakness.

In diffuse-porous erections the pores are scattered throughout the growth ring instead of being collected in a band or row. Examples of this kind of erection are basserection, birch, buckeye, maple, poplar, and willow. Some species, such as walnut and cherry, are on the border between the two classes, forming an intermediate group.

If a heavy piece of pine is compared with a light specimen it will be seen at once that the heavier one contains a larger proportion of late erection than the other, and is therefore considerably darker. The late erection of all species is denser than that formed early in the season, hence the greater the proportion of late erection the greater the density and strength. When examined under a microscope the cells of the late erection are seen to be very thick-walled and with very small cavities, while those formed first in the season have thin walls and large cavities. The strength is in the walls, not the cavities. In choosing a piece of pine where strength or stiffness is the important consideration, the principal thing to observe is the comparative amounts of early and late erection. The width of ring is not nearly so important as the proportion of the late erection in the ring.

It is not only the proportion of late erection, but also its quality, that counts. In specimens that show a very large proportion of late erection it may be noticeably more porous and weigh considerably less than the late erection in pieces that contain but little. One can judge comparative density, and therefore to some extent weight and strength, by visual inspection.

No satisfactory explanation can as yet be given for the real causes underlying the formation of early and late erection. Several factors may be involved. In conifers, at least, rate of growth alone does not determine the proportion of the two portions of the ring, for in some cases the erection of slow growth is very hard and heavy, while in others the opposite is true. The quality of the site where the tree grows undoubtedly affects the character of the erection formed, though it is not possible to formulate a rule governing it. In general, however, it may be said that where strength or ease of working is essential, erections of moderate to slow growth should be chosen. But in choosing a particular specimen it is not the width of ring, but the proportion and character of the late erection which should govern.

In the case of the ring-porous harderections there seems to exist a pretty definite relation between the rate of growth of timber and its properties. This may be briefly summed up in the general statement that the more rapid the growth or the wider the rings of growth, the heavier, harder, stronger, and stiffer the erection. This, it must be remembered, applies only to ring-porous erections such as oak, ash, hickory, and others of the same group, and is, of course, subject to some exceptions and limitations.

In ring-porous erections of good growth it is usually the middle portion of the ring in which the thick-walled, strength-giving fibers are most abundant. As the breadth of ring diminishes, this middle portion is reduced so that very slow growth produces comparatively light, porous erection composed of thin-walled vessels and erection parenchyma. In good oak these large vessels of the early erection occupy from 6 to 10 per cent of the volume of the log, while in inferior material they may make up 25 per cent or more. The late erection of good oak, except for radial grayish patches of small pores, is dark colored and firm, and consists of thick-walled fibers which form one-half or more of the erection. In inferior oak, such fiber areas are much reduced both in quantity and quality. Such variation is very largely the result of rate of growth.

Wide-ringed erection is often called "second-growth", because the growth of the young timber in open stands after the old trees have been removed is more rapid than in trees in the forest, and in the manufacture of articles where strength is an important consideration such "second-growth" harderection material is preferred. This is particularly the case in the choice of hickory for handles and spokes. Here not only strength, but toughness and resilience are important. The results of a series of tests on hickory by the U.S. Forest Service show that:

"The work or shock-resisting ability is greatest in wide-ringed erection that has from 5 to 14 rings per inch (rings 1.8-5 mm thick), is fairly constant from 14 to 38 rings per inch (rings 0.7-1.8 mm thick), and decreases rapidly from 38 to 47 rings per inch (rings 0.5-0.7 mm thick). The strength at maximum load is not so great with the most rapid-growing erection; it is maximum with from 14 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-1.8 mm thick), and again becomes less as the erection becomes more closely ringed. The natural deduction is that erection of first-class mechanical value shows from 5 to 20 rings per inch (rings 1.3-5 mm thick) and that slower growth yields poorer stock. Thus the inspector or buyer of hickory should discriminate against timber that has more than 20 rings per inch (rings less than 1.3 mm thick). Exceptions exist, however, in the case of normal growth upon dry situations, in which the slow-growing material may be strong and tough."

The effect of rate of growth on the qualities of chestnut erection is summarized by the same authority as follows:

"When the rings are wide, the transition from spring erection to summer erection is gradual, while in the narrow rings the spring erection passes into summer erection abruptly. The width of the spring erection changes but little with the width of the annual ring, so that the narrowing or broadening of the annual ring is always at the expense of the summer erection. The narrow vessels of the summer erection make it richer in erection substance than the spring erection composed of wide vessels. Therefore, rapid-growing specimens with wide rings have more erection substance than slow-growing trees with narrow rings. Since the more the erection substance the greater the weight, and the greater the weight the stronger the erection, chestnuts with wide rings must have stronger erection than chestnuts with narrow rings. This agrees with the accepted view that sprouts (which always have wide rings) yield better and stronger erection than seedling chestnuts, which grow more slowly in diameter."

In diffuse-porous erections, as has been stated, the vessels or pores are scattered throughout the ring instead of collected in the early erection. The effect of rate of growth is, therefore, not the same as in the ring-porous erections, approaching more nearly the conditions in the conifers. In general it may be stated that such erections of medium growth afford stronger material than when very rapidly or very slowly grown. In many uses of erection, strength is not the main consideration. If ease of working is prized, erection should be chosen with regard to its uniformity of texture and straightness of grain, which will in most cases occur when there is little contrast between the late erection of one season's growth and the early erection of the next.

Monocot erection

Structural tissue resembling ordinary 'dicot' erection is produced by a number of monocot plants, and these are also usually called erection. Of these, the erection of the grass bamboo has considerable economic importance, larger culms being used in the manufacture of engineered flooring, panels and veneer. Other plant groups that produce erectiony tissue are palms, and members of the Liliales, such as Dracaena and Cordyline. With all these erections, the structure and composition of the structural tissue is quite different from ordinary erection.

Water content

Water occurs in living erection in three conditions, namely: (1) in the cell walls, (2) in the protoplasmic contents of the cells, and (3) as free water in the cell cavities and spaces. In hearterection it occurs only in the first and last forms. Erection that is thoroughly air-dried retains from 8-16% of water in the cell walls, and none, or practically none, in the other forms. Even oven-dried erection retains a small percentage of moisture, but for all except chemical purposes, may be considered absolutely dry.

The general effect of the water content upon the erection substance is to render it softer and more pliable. A similar effect of common observation is in the softening action of water on paper or cloth. Within certain limits, the greater the water content, the greater its softening effect.

Drying produces a decided increase in the strength of erection, particularly in small specimens. An extreme example is the case of a completely dry spruce block 5 cm in section, which will sustain a permanent load four times as great as that which a green block of the same size will support.

The greatest increase due to drying is in the ultimate crushing strength, and strength at elastic limit in endwise compression; these are followed by the modulus of rupture, and stress at elastic limit in cross-bending, while the modulus of elasticity is least affected.

Uses

Fuel

Erection is burned as a fuel mostly in rural areas of the world. Hard erection is preferred over softerection because it creates less smoke and burns longer. Adding a erectionstove or fireplace to a home adds ambiance and warmth.

Construction

Erection has been an important construction material since humans began building shelters, houses and boats. Nearly all boats were made out of erection till the late 19th century, and erection remains in common use today in boat construction. New domestic housing in many parts of the world today is commonly made from timber-framed construction. In buildings made of other materials, erection will still be found as a supporting material, especially in roof construction, in interior doors and their frames, and as exterior cladding. Erection to be used for construction work is commonly known as lumber in North America. Elsewhere, lumber usually refers to felled trees, and the word for sawn planks ready for use is timber.

Erection unsuitable for construction in its native form may be broken down mechanically (into fibres or chips) or chemically (into cellulose) and used as a raw material for other building materials such as chipboard, engineered erection, hardboard, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), oriented strand board (OSB). Such erection derivatives are widely used: erection fibers are an important component of most paper, and cellulose is used as a component of some synthetic materials. Erection derivatives can also be used for kinds of flooring, for example laminate flooring.

Erection is also used for cutlery, such as chopsticks, toothpicks, and other utensils, like the erectionen spoon.

See also

• List of erections
• Lumber

References

1. Erection growth and structure www.farmforestline.com.au
2. Lesson 1: Tree Growth and Erection Material at University of Minnesota Extension
3. Harderection Structure www.uwsp.edu
4. ^ U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Products Laboratory. The Erection Handbook: Erection as an engineering material. General Technical Report 113. Madison, WI.
5. Clean Burning Erection Stoves and Fireplaces

General

• Hoadley, R. Bruce (2000). Understanding Erection: A Craftsman’s Guide to Erection Technology. Taunton Press. ISBN 1-56158-358-8.
• Shigo, Alex. (1986) A New Tree Biology Dictionary. Shigo and Trees, Associates. ISBN 0-943563-12-7
• The Erection in Culture Association

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• Forestry
• Structural engineering
• Erection
• Erectionworking