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Revision as of 04:41, 12 October 2008 by Biruitorul (talk | contribs) (please provide evidence, not assertions)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff) This article is about the history of the Republic of Moldova. For the historical region Moldavia, see History of Moldavia.
Most of today's Moldova was part of the Principality of Moldavia from its founding in the 14th century until 1812, when it was ceded to the Russian Empire following one of several Russian-Turkish wars. The cultural heritage of the Principality of Moldavia stands at the core of Moldovan identity of Moldova.
Bessarabia as part of the Principality of Moldavia
Main article: Moldavia
With the notable exception of Transnistria, the territory of today's Republic of Moldova covers most of the historical region of Bessarabia, named so since 1812 by the Russians, a part of Principality of Moldavia until 1812. Before 1812 "Bessarabia" was only the region of the Danube and the Black Sea shores, today called Bujak. The medieval principality of Moldavia covered the so-called Carpathian-Danube-Dniester area, stretched from Transylvania in the west to the Dniester River in the east. Its nucleus was in the northwestern part, the Ţara de Sus ("Upper Land"), part of which later became known as Bukovina. The name of the principality originates from the Moldova River.
The founding of Moldavia is attributed to the Vlach noblemen Dragoş of Bedeu, from Maramureş, who had been ordered in 1343 by the Hungarian king Louis of Anjou to establish a defense for the historic Kingdom of Hungary against the Tatars, and Bogdan I of Cuhea, Maramureş, who became the first independent prince of Moldavia, when he rejected Hungarian authority in 1359. The greatest Moldavian personality was prince Ştefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great), who ruled from 1457-1504. Ştefan was succeeded by weaker and weaker princes. In 1538, Moldavia became a vassal of the Ottoman Empire, to which it owed 10% of internal revenue. Moldavia was forbidden to held foreign relations in detriment of the Ottoman Empire (although at times the country managed to circumvent this interdiction), but was allowed internal autonomy, including sole authority over foreign trade. Turks were legally forbidden to owe land or built religious establishments in Moldavia.
In the 18th century, the territory of Moldavia often became a transit or war zone during conflicts between the Ottomans, Austrians, and Russians. In 1774, the principality became a Russian protectorship while remaining formally a vassal of the Ottoman Empire. In 1775, Austria annexed cca 11% of the territory of Moldavia, which became known as Bukovina. By the Treaty of Bucharest following the Russo-Turkish War (1806-1812), Russian has annexed further 50% of its territory, which became known as Bessarabia. The remaining part of the principality emancipated from Ottoman domination in the first part of 19th century, and in 1859 united with Valachia, establishing Romania.
Part of the Russian Empire
Main article: Bessarabia in the Russian EmpireBy the Treaty of Bucharest of May 28, 1812 between the Ottoman Empire and the Russian Empire — concluding the Russo-Turkish War, 1806-1812 — the latter annexed the eastern half of the Principality of Moldavia. That region was then called Bessarabia. Prior to this year, the name was used only for approximately its southern one quarter. At the end of the Crimean War, in 1856, by the Treaty of Paris, two districts of southern Bessarabia were returned to Moldavia, and Russia lost access to the Danube river. In 1859, Moldavia, including the Southern part of Bessarabia, and Wallachia united and formed modern Romania.
The Romanian War of Independence was fought in 1877-1878, with the help of the Russian allies. Although the treaty of alliance between Romania and Russia specified that Russia would respect the territorial integrity of Romania and not claim any part of Romania at the end of the war, by the Treaty of Berlin, the southern part of Bessarabia was re-annexed to Russia. In exchange, Romania got Dobruja, prior to that moment directly controlled by the Ottomans.
Union with Romania
Main article: Union of Bessarabia with Romania
After the Russian Revolution, a Romanian national emancipation movement started to develop in Bessarabia.
To quell the chaos brought by the Russian revolutions of February and October 1917, a National Council, Sfatul Ţării, was established in Bessarabia, with 120 members elected by political and professional organizations from Bessarabia. On December 15, 1917, the Diet proclaimed the Moldavian Democratic Republic, as part of a Russian Federation, then formed the government of Moldavia. In early January Romanian troops occupied Bessarabia. Romanian authors claim that this was done at the request of the Sfatul Ţării executive, approved by the Allies and a Russian White general Bessarabia to help keep the security situation, deteriorated due to large numbers of deserters from the Russian Army, however other authors point that the Romanian action was protested by Ion Inculeţ, president of Sfatul Ţării and by Pantelimon Erhan, head of the provisional Moldavian executive. Others claim the intervention was demanded by the Moldovan Government. After this, the Diet declared the independence of the Republic of Moldova on February 6 (old style January 24) 1918. Under pressure from the Romania army, on April 9 (old style March 27), 1918, Sfatul Ţării voted 86 to 3, with 36 abstained, Union of Bessarabia with Romania. The union was recognized by some European coutries, but not by the Soviet government, which claimed the area as Bessarabian Soviet Socialist Republic, and argued the union was made in the conditions of Romanian military occupation by the Council which had not been elected by the people in Bessarabia in elections.
Beginning of the Soviet period
Main article: Moldavian ASSR
After the creation of the Soviet Union in December 1922, the Soviet government moved in 1924 to establish the Moldavian Autonomous Oblast on the lands to the east of the Dniester River in the Ukrainian SSR. The capital of the oblast was Balta, situated in present-day Ukraine. Seven months later, the oblast was upgraded to the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldavian ASSR or MASSR), even though its population was only 30% ethnic Romanian. The capital remained at Balta until 1929, when it was moved to Tiraspol.
Establishment of the MSSR and World War II
In creating the secret protocol attached to the 1939 Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact defining the division of the spheres of influence in Eastern Europe, Nazi Germany declared it had no political interest in Bessarabia in response to the Soviet Union's expression of interest, thereby consigning Bessarabia to the Soviet "sphere." On June 26, 1940 the Soviet government issued an ultimatum to the Romanian minister in Moscow, demanding Romania immediately cede Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. Italy and Germany, which needed a stable Romania and access to its oil fields urged King Carol II to do so. Under duress, with no prospect of aid from France or Britain, Carol complied. On June 28, Soviet troops crossed the Dniester and occupied Bessarabia, Northern Bukovina, and the Hertza region. This new status is considered, from an international legal standpoint, based on a formal agreement contained in an exchange of notes, consenting to the retrocession of Bessarabia and the cession of the North Bukovina.
The Romanian withdrawal was chaotic. Soviet promises of allowing an orderly troop removal were broken. Officials, former Sfatul Ţării members and ordinary citizens were arrested or shot on the spot. The official Soviet press declared that the "peaceful policy of the USSR" had "liquidated the Soviet-Romanian conflict".
The Soviet republic created following annexation did not follow Bessarabia's traditional border. The Moldovan Soviet Socialist Republic (Moldovan SSR), established August 2, 1940 consisted of six counties of Bessarabia joined with the western-most part of the prior MASSR (formerly Ukraine). Various changes were made to its borders, which were finally settled by November 1940. Territories where ethic Ukrainians were the largest ethnic group (parts of Northern Bukovina and parts of Hotin, Akkerman, and Izmail) went to the Ukraine, while a small strip of Transnistria east of the Dniester with significant (49% of inhabitants) Moldovan population was joined to the MSSR. The transfer of Bessarabia's Black Sea and Danube frontage to the Ukraine insured its control by a stable Soviet republic. This transfer, along with the division of Bessarabia, was also designed to discourage future Romanian claims and irredentism.
Allied with Nazi Germany, Romania subsequently recaptured and reintegrated the annexed territory by July 1941. Ignoring the counsel of Iuliu Maniu and Dinu Brătianu, Antonescu pushed beyond Romania's interwar borders. In occupied Transnistria, Romanian forces, working with the Germans, deported or exterminated 300,000 Jews, including 147,000 from Bessarabia and Bukovina.
By April 1944, Transnistria was back in the hands of the Soviets. With Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina again under Soviet administration, the peace treaty signed in February 1947 fixed the Romanian-Soviet border to the one arranged by the bilateral agreement of 28 June 1940.
Postwar reestablishment of Soviet control
Main article: Moldavian SSRThe territory remained part of the USSR after WWII as the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic. Several social and economic groups were targeted to be murdered, imprisoned, and deported to Siberia due to their economic situation, political views, or ties to the former regime. Secret police struck at dissenting people and groups. Over the years, the state imposed a harsh denationalization policy toward the ethnic majority, while ethnic Russians and Ukrainians were encouraged to immigrate to the Moldavian SSR, especially to large cities and to Transnistria, specifically to fill the personnel need of the newly-established industries. Thus, by the late Soviet period, the urban intelligentsia and government officials were mostly ethnic Moldovans, while Russians and Ukrainians made up most of the technical and engineering specialists.
The government's policies - requisitioning large amounts of agricultural products despite a poor harvest and a labor shortage - induced a famine, with 216,000 victims in the Moldavian SSR alone (excluding the Budjak), following a historic drought in 1945-1947.
Most political and academic positions were given to members of non-Romanian ethnic groups (only 14% of the Moldavian SSR's political leaders were ethnic Romanians in 1946).
A wave of repression was aimed at the Romanian intellectuals who decided to remain in Moldova after the war.
The conditions imposed during the reestablishment of Soviet rule became the basis of deep resentment toward Soviet authorities — a resentment that soon manifested itself. During Leonid Brezhnev's 1950-1952 tenure as the First Secretary of the Communist Party of Moldavia (CPM), he put down numerous small rebellions of locals by killing or deporting thousands of people and instituting forced collectivization.
Although Brezhnev and other CPM first secretaries were largely successful in suppressing Moldovan/Romanian nationalism in 1950s-1980s, Mikhail S. Gorbachev's administration facilitated the revival of the movement in the region. His policies of glasnost and perestroika created conditions in which national feelings could be openly expressed and in which the Soviet republics could consider reforms.
In 1970s and '80s Moldova received substantial investment from the budget of the USSR to develop industrial, scientific facilities, as well as housing. In 1971 the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted a decision "About the measures for further development of Kishinev city" that secured more than one billion rubles of investment from the USSR budget. Subsequent decisions directed large funds and brought highly qualified specialists from all over the USSR to develop Moldova. Such an allocation of USSR assets was influenced by the fact that Leonid Brezhnev (the effective ruler of the USSR from 1964 to 1982) was the Communist Party First Secretary in the Moldavian SSR in 1950s. These investments stopped in 1991 with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, when Moldova became independent.
Increasing self-expression
In this climate of openness, political self-assertion escalated in the Moldavian SSR in 1988. The year 1989 saw the formation of the Popular Front of Moldova, an association of independent cultural and political groups that had finally gained official recognition. Large demonstrations by ethnic Romanians led to the designation of Moldovan as the official language and a return to the Latin alphabet. The head of the CPM was also replaced. However, opposition was growing to the Romanian language and to the potentially increasing influence of ethnic Moldovans, especially in Transnistria, where the Yedinstvo-Unitatea (Unity) Intermovement had been formed in 1988 by the Slavic minorities, and in the south, where Gagauz Halkî (Gagauz People), formed in November 1989, came to represent the Gagauz, a Turkic-speaking minority there.
The first democratic elections to the Moldavian SSR's Supreme Soviet were held 25 February 1990. Runoff elections were held in March. The Popular Front won a majority of the votes. After the elections, Mircea Snegur, a communist, was elected chairman of the Supreme Soviet; in September he became president of the republic. The reformist government that took over in May 1990 made many changes that did not please the minorities, including changing the republic's name in June from the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic to the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova and declaring it sovereign the following month.
Secession of Gagauzia and Transnistria
Main article: Conflict in Transnistria and GagauziaIn August 1990 the Gagauz declared a separate "Gagauz Republic" (Gagauz-Yeri) in the south, around the city of Comrat. In September the people on the east bank of the Dniester River (with mostly Slavic population) proclaimed the "Dnestr Moldavian Republic" (commonly called the "Dnestr Republic") in Transnistria, with its capital at Tiraspol. Although the Supreme Soviet immediately declared these declarations null, both "republics" went on to hold elections. Stepan Topal was elected president of the "Gagauz Republic" in December 1991, and Igor' N. Smirnov was elected president of the "Dnestr Republic" in the same month.
Approximately 50,000 armed Moldovan nationalist volunteers went to Transnistria, where widespread violence was temporarily averted by the intervention of the Russian 14th Army. (The Soviet 14th Army, now the Russian 14th Army, had been headquartered in Chişinău under the High Command of the Southwestern Theater of Military Operations since 1956.) Negotiations in Moscow among the Gagauz, the Transnistrian Slavs, and the government of the Soviet Socialist Republic of Moldova failed, and the government refused to join in further negotiations.
In May 1991, the country's official name was changed to the Republic of Moldova (Republica Moldova). The name of the Supreme Soviet also was changed, to the Moldovan Parliament.
Independence
During the 1991 August coup d'état in Moscow against Mikhail Gorbachev, commanders of the Soviet Union's Southwestern Theater of Military Operations attempted to impose a state of emergency in Moldova. They were overruled by the Moldovan government, which declared its support for Russian president Boris Yeltsin, who led the counter-coup in Moscow. On 27 August 1991, following the coup's collapse, Moldova declared its independence from the Soviet Union.
In October, Moldova began to organize its own armed forces. The Soviet Union was falling apart quickly, and Moldova had to rely on itself to prevent the spread of violence from the "Dnestr Republic" to the rest of the country. The December elections of Stepan Topal and Igor Smirnov as presidents of their respective "republics," and the official dissolution of the Soviet Union at the end of the year, led to increased tensions in Moldova.
At the end of 1991, an ex-communist reformer, Mircea Snegur, won an election for the presidency. Four months later, the country achieved formal recognition as an independent state at the United Nations.
Following independence in 1991, the Romanian tricolor with a coat-of-arms was used as the state flag, and Deşteaptă-te române!, the Romanian anthem also became the anthem of Moldova. During that period a Movement for unification of Romania and the Republic of Moldova began in each country.
In 1992, Moldova became involved in a brief conflict against local insurgents in Transnistria, who were aided by Russian armed forces and Cossacks. A ceasefire for this war was negotiated by presidents Mircea Snegur and Boris Yeltsin in July. A demarcation line was to be maintained by a tripartite peacekeeping force (composed of Moldovan, Russian, and Transnistrian forces), and Moscow agreed to withdraw its 14th Army if a suitable constitutional provision were made for Transnistria. Also, Transnistria would have a special status within Moldova and would have the right to secede if Moldova changed its statehood, for instance by uniting with Romania.
Post independence: 1993 to 1999
Starting 1993, Moldova began to distance itself from Romania. The constitution adopted in 1994 used the term "Moldovan language" instead of "Romanian" and changed the national anthem to Limba noastră.
New parliamentary elections were held in Moldova on 27 February 1994. Although the election was described by international observers as free and fair, authorities in Transnistria did not allow balloting there and made efforts to discourage the inhabitants from participating. Only some 7,500 inhabitants voted at specially established precincts in right-bank Moldova.
The new Parliament, with its Democratic Agrarian Party of Moldova majority, did not face the same gridlock that characterized the old Parliament with its majority of Popular Front hard-line nationalists: legislation was passed, and changes were made. President Snegur signed the Partnership for Peace agreement of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) in March 1994.
A March 1994 referendum saw an overwhelming majority of voters favoring continued independence. In April, the Parliament approved Moldova's membership in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) and in a CIS charter on economic union. On 28 July, Parliament ratified a new constitution, which went into effect 27 August 1994, and provided substantial autonomy to Transnistria and to Gagauzia.
Russia and Moldova signed an agreement in October 1994 on the withdrawal of Russian troops from Transnistria, but the Russian government did not ratify it; another stalemate ensued. Although the cease-fire remained in effect, further negotiations that included the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe and the United Nations made little progress.
In March and April 1995, Moldovan college and secondary school students participated in a series of strikes and demonstrations in Chişinău to protest the government's cultural and educational policies. The students were joined by others protesting for economic reasons. The most emotional issue was that of the national language - whether it should be called Moldovan, as named in the 1994 constitution, or Romanian.
In a 27 April speech to the Parliament, President Snegur asked the Parliament to amend the constitution and change the name of the language to Romanian. The government's final decision was postponed until the fall of 1995 because of the stipulation that six months must pass before a proposed change to the constitution can be made. The student demonstrators declared a moratorium on further strikes until 6 September.
The 1996 attempt by President Snegur to change the official language to "Romanian" was dismissed by the Moldovan Parliament as "promoting Romanian expansionism".
The Partnership and Cooperation Agreement with the European Union (EU) came into force in July 1998 for an initial period of ten years. It established the institutional framework for bilateral relations, set the principal common objectives, and called for activities and dialogue in a number of policy areas.
At the 1999 OSCE summit, Russia signed an agreement to withdraw its troops from Transnistria by January 1, 2002. However, it has yet to follow through on this pledge.
Recent history: 2001 to present
In the 2001 elections the Party of Communists of the Republic of Moldova won majority of seats in the Parliament and appointed the president, Vladimir Voronin. Nevertheless, after a few years in power, the relationship between Moldova and Russia deteriorated over the Transnistrian conflict.
In the summer of 2004, Transnistrian authorities forcibly closed four Moldovan schools in Tiraspol, Bender, and Rîbniţa that used the Romanian language in the Latin alphabet. This caused an increase in tensions between the Moldova and the breakaway province, which resulted in Moldova and Transnistria imposing economic sanctions on each other. The conflict was resolved later that year with Transnistrian authorities granting the establishments the status of privately funded schools.
In the following election of 2005, the Party of the Communists was re-elected on a pro-Western platform, stressing the need for European integration. Later that year the Moldovan Parliament re-elected Voronin to a second term as president. Moldovan authorities denied entry to a Russian organization (CIS-EMO), that Russia said was to monitor the elections for fairness; some members of the organization who nevertheless entered the country were deported. As a consequence, Russian-Moldovan ties weakened greatly, and the nation was split between building relations with the West or with Russia.
Since Romania joined the European Union in 2007 and imposed a visa requirement for Moldovan citizens, as many as 800,000 Moldovan citizens have applied for Romanian citizenship (anyone with at least one grandparent who was a Romanian citizen in 1940 can apply for Romanian citizenship).
Notes
- Template:Ro icon "Activitatea legislativă a Sfatului Ţării şi autodeterminarea Basarabiei" ("The Legislative Activity of Sfatul Ţării and the Self-determination of Bessarabia"), Literatura şi Arta, 11 September 2008
- Template:Ro icon Corneliu Chirieş, "90 de ani de la Unirea Basarabiei cu România" ("90 Years Since the Union of Bessarabia with Romania"), Observator de Bacău, 23 March 2008
- Charles Upson Clark, "Bessarabia", Chapter XIX, New York, 1926, available online at
- Pantelimon Halipa, Anatolie Moraru, Testament pentru urmaşi, München, 1967, reprint Hyperion, Chişinău, 1991, pp. 82-86
- Cristina Petrescu, "Contrasting/Conflicting Identities:Bessarabians, Romanians, Moldovans" in Nation-Building and Contested Identities, Polirom, 2001, pg. 156
- King, C. The Moldovans: Romania, Russia and the Politics of Culture, Hoover Institution Press, 2000, pg. 35
- {citejournal|title=The Legal Status of the Bukovina and Bessarabia|author=Malbone W. Graham|journal=The American Journal of International Law|month=October | year=1944|volume=38|issue=4|pubisher=American Society of International Law}}
- Tismăneanu Report, pages 585
- Ian Sinclair, Boundaries in Daniel Bardonnet, Hague Academy of International Law, Le règlement pacifique des différends internationaux en Europe, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, Hague, 1991, ISBN 0792315731, p. 36
- Charles King, The Moldovans: Romania, Russia, and the politics of culture, p.91. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University, 2000. ISBN 0-8179-9792-X.
- "Interethnic Relations, Minority Rights and Security Concerns: A Four-Country Perspective", International Renaissance Foundation
- Alekseĭ Georgievich Arbatov, Managing Conflict in the Former Soviet Union: Russian and American Perspectives, MIT Press, 1997, ISBN 0262510936, p. 154-155.
- Political Parties, Fedor, Helen, ed. Moldova: A Country Study. GPO for the Library of Congress, Washington, D.C., 1995
- Hughes, James and Sasse, Gwendolyn. Ethnicity and Territory in the Former Soviet Union: Regions in Conflict, p.109. Taylor & Francis (2002), ISBN 0714682101
- Olga Savceac, Transnistria-Moldova Conflict, ICE Case Studies Number 182, May 2006
See also
External links
- The Republic of Moldova: An Historical Background, Survey by Dr. Vasile Nedelciuc
- www.moldovanoastra.md
- http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6268853.stm (Moldavians apply for Romanian citizenship).