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Caste system in India

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 The Indian caste system is a social system in which people are divided into separate communities, known in English as castes, and in Hindi as Varnas. The origin of the caste system is in Hinduism but it affected the whole of Indian society, and later it was transmitted to Nepal. In religious terms the caste system was a basically simple division of society into five castes (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya Sudra and Untouchables) arranged in a hierarchy, with the "Untouchable" (Dalit) outcasts below this structure. But socially the caste system was more complicated, with many more castes and sub-castes and other divisions. Legally the Indian government disallows the practice of caste system (in the 1948 Constitution and 1955 Civil Rights Act) but the law is often ignored, particularly in rural areas.

Varna system

Four Varnas

The caste system, although not currently officially sanctioned by their governments, is used by Hindus, particularly in India and Nepal for reasons of determining lineage and is passed down through patrilineal descent. It is based on four varnas:

Twice born

The first three castes had social and economical rights, which the Shudra and the untouchables did not have. The first three castes are also seen as 'twice born'. The intention in these two births is to the natural birth and to the ceremonial entrance to the society at a much later age. Each Varna and also the untouchables and ethnic group in case of Nepal are divided into many communities. These communities are called Jat or Jati (The caste is also used instead of Jat). For example the Brahmans have Jats called Dhakal, Bhattarai, Marasini etc. The untouchable have Jats Kami, Damai, Sarki and Doom, Chammar in the case of terai system and Pode, Chame etc in the case of Newar.But there is no such division of society on the basis of caste in ethnic group although we can find some class differences among this group. Each Jat members are allowed to marry only with their Jat members. People are born into their Jat and it cannot be changed. Once if some one is born to certain cast he/she cannot be change to another jat except in the case of women when they are married they may change to other clan but not jat.If a man is born as Kami he cannot be a Brahmin and Brahmin cannot be a Kami,so caste is a permanent attribute among the Hindu.

The occupations of the Vaishya are those connected with trade, the cultivation of the land and the breeding of cattle; while those of a Kshatriya consist in ruling and defending the people, administering justice, and the duties, of the military profession generally and ruling by Dharma. Both share with the Brahman the privilege of reading the Veda. To the Brahman belongs the right of teaching and expounding the sacred texts, and also that of interpreting and determining the law and the rules of caste.

Shudras were the serfs, and performed the physically difficult work shunned by the higher castes. However, Hindu tradition has always had members of the Shudra community ascending to the level of priesthood. Saints of the Shudra tradition include such important figures as Valmiki, author of Ramayana, Ved Vyasa who compiled the Vedas and other important Hindu works, whose mother was a Shudra and Rishi Matanga.

Brahmins are 3.5% of the population in India, but hold 78% of judicial positions and around 50% of parliamentary seats.

Intermarriage between castes was well known and practiced by many members of each caste as can be attested by their scriptures, although preservation of lineage and traditions was considered important by most castes.

Indian texts speak of jati, which are communities. Each varna is further subdivided into many jatis. Each jati has its appropriate rules of conduct, or "dharma", including rules regarding marriage, eating, and physical proximity. The four varnas are psychological categories that are supposed to be present in each individual.

Religiously anyone who does not belong to the four Varnas is an outcast and untouchable. It means, all foreigners and non-Hindus are all supposed to be untouchables, in the case of Nepal all the ethnic group should fall in this categories but Muluki Ain has incorporated the entire ethnic group into Caste hierarchy. But in reality neither all foreigners nor non-Hindus were treated as untouchables.

Division of labor

The varna system is based on division of labor. The colors are based upon the daily activities of each group. The Brahmin wears white because he performs various sacrifices and has to be clean. Any impurities will show on the white clothing. The Kshatriya warriors wear red because they see a lot of blood and wounds as they practice their daily warrior routines. The Vaishya traders handle items like turmeric and other spices and they wear yellow because it masks the color. The Shudras wear blue because the color blue was more appropriate for the work environment.

The power of the sacerdotal order having been gradually enlarged in proportion to the development of the minutiae of sacrificial ceremonial and the increase of sacred lore, they began to lay claim to supreme authority in regulating and controlling the religious and social life of the people. The author of the so-called Purusha-skta, or hymn of Purusha, represents the four castes. the Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras having severally sprung respectively from the mouth, the arms, the thighs and the feet of Purusha, a primary being, here assumed to be the source of the universe. It is very doubtful, however, whether at the time when this hymn was composed the relative position of the two upper castes could already have been settled in so decided a way as this theory might lead one to suppose. There is, on the contrary, reason to believe that some time had yet to elapse, marked by fierce and bloody struggles for supremacy, of which only imperfect ideas can be formed from the legendary and frequently biased accounts of later generations, before the Kshatriyas finally submitted to the full measure of priestly authority.

Untouchables (Dalit)

The untouchablity feature in the caste system is one of the cruelest features of the caste system. It is seen by many as one of the strongest racist phenomenon in the world. In the Hindu societies people who worked in ignominious, polluting, jobs dealing with the dead, and unclean occupations were seen as polluting peoples and were therefore considered as untouchables. The untouchables had almost no rights in the society. In different parts of Nepal they were treated in different ways. In some regions the attitude towards the untouchables was harsh and strict. In other regions it was less strict. (Arora: 1998:104, Concept of Impurity and Hindu caste System)

In regions where the attitude was less strict the untouchables were seen as polluting people and their dwellings were at a distance from the settlements of higher caste. The untouchables were not allowed to touch people from the higher caste. They were not allowed to enter houses of the higher caste. They were not allowed to enter the temples. They were not allowed to use the same wells used by the higher caste people. In public occasions they were compelled to sit at a distance from the higher caste. In regions where the attitude towards the untouchables were more severe, not only touching them was seen polluting, but also even a contact with their shadow was seen as polluting. It is obvious that most of the trades pursued by impure castes are some way associated with impurity. (Andras Hoffer 2004: 74)

If, because of any reason, there was a contact between an untouchable and a member of the high caste, the higher caste member became defiled and had to immerse or wash himself with water to be purified. In strict societies, especially among the 'Twice Born' (the three top Varnas) the touched 'Twice Born' also had to pass through some religious ceremonies to purify him from the pollution. If the untouchable entered a house and touched things of a high caste, the members used to wash or clean the places where the untouchable touched and stepped.

In some incidences the untouchables who associated with the high caste members were beaten and even murdered for that reason. Some higher hierarchy the orthodox Hindus treated anyone who worked in any kind of polluting job as untouchable and did not have any contact with them. According to orthodox rules any one who does not belong to the four Varnas, meaning foreigners, are untouchables.

About 75% of Dalit communities live below the poverty line. Two-thirds of Dalits are illiterate, and half are landless agricultural labourers.

Jati

Mixed in with the Varna caste system was the Jati sub-caste system. The Jati was effectively a system similar to guilds, and was associated with occupation. If the Varnas gave structure to society, the Jati gave structure to each Varna.

Unlike the Varna system which required spiritual purity in order to ascend, Jati could be changed with comparative ease. Marriages would be arranged within one's varna, but sometimes between Jati sub-castes. Due to its inheritability, there is a lot of 'caste prejudice' between castes, usually taking the form of disassociation with lower castes, though sometimes it would degenerate into petty 'gang wars,' usually among the lowest caste(s) and the Pariahs.

Caste in Hindu texts

The notion of Varna as a non-inherited human types system rather than a socio-religious caste system was first attested in the Rig-Veda, though it generally refers to the four principal classes described in Manu's code, viz. Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras. It is believed that one is born into a caste depending on one's karmic influences—actions in the past life and current life. See P.V. Kane's "History of Dharmashastra" for references to the caste system in the Dharmashastra literature.

Rig Veda - Purusha Sukta hymn

The castes are not mentioned in the oldest part of the Rig Veda (the "family books," (2-7). Only the Purusha Sukta hymn (Rig Veda 10:90) mentions the castes and compares them to the body of a man: "The Brâhmana was his mouth, of both his arms was the Râjanya made. His thighs became the Vaishya, from his feet the Sûdra was produced." (RV 10:90:12) In the Purusha Sukta hymn the word Varna is not used, and it is the only hymn of the Rig Veda where the words Vaishya and Sudra are used. The Purusha Sukta hymn is considered to be one of the youngest parts of the Rig Veda.

Origins of the system

Aryan invasion

Main article: Aryan invasion theory

The social historical theory explains the creation of the Varnas, Jats and of the untouchables. According to this theory, the caste system began with the arrival of the Aryans in India. The Aryans are said to have arrived in India around 1500 BC. The light skinned Indo-Aryans, according to this theory, arrived in India from Central Asia. Before the Aryans there were other communities in India of other, origins (see Indus Valley Civilization). Some of the most important of these are the Dravidian, the Mongol, the Austroloid and Tibeto-Burmese tribals. The Dravidians were the largest community in India, and are by some scholars identified as the bearers of the Indus Valley Civilization.

The Aryans organized among themselves in three groups. The first group was of the warriors and they were called Rajayana, later they changed their name Rajayana to Kshatria. The second group was of the priests and they were called Brahmans. These two groups struggled politically for leadership among the Aryans. In this struggle the Brahmans got to be the leaders of the Aryan society. The third group was of the farmers and craftsmen and they were called Vaisia. The Aryans who conquered and took control over parts of north India subdued the locals and made them their servants. In this process the Vaisias who were the farmers and the craftsmen became the landlords and the businessmen of the society and the locals became the peasants and the craftsmen of the society.

Later on the Aryans who possibly created the caste system, added to their system non-Aryans. Different Jats who professed different professions were integrated in different Varnas according to their profession. Other foreign invaders of ancient India - Greeks, Huns, Scythains and others - who conquered parts of India and created kingdoms, were integrated in the Kshatria Varna (warrior castes). But probably the Aryan policy was not to integrate original Indian communities within them and therefore many aristocratic and warrior communities that were in India before the Aryans did not get the Kshatria status.

Most of the communities that were in India before the arrival of the Aryans were integrated in the Sudra Varna or were made outcast depending on the professions of these communities. Communities who professed non-polluting jobs were integrated in Sudras Varna. And communities who professed polluting professions were made outcasts. The Brahmans are very strict about cleanliness. In the past people believed that diseases could also spread also through air and not only through physical touch. Perhaps because of this reason the untouchables were not only disallowed to touch the high caste communities but they also had to stand at a certain distance from the high castes.

Transition in Caste

There is the Upanishadic story of a boy who went to a guru to learn the Hindu scriptures. His guru asked him what his caste was. Consulting his mother, who was actually a prostitute and didn't really know what her caste by birth was, the boy returned to the guru and responded that he was all castes. He worshipped the Gods, thus fulfilling the duties that are ordinarily a Brahmin's, he earned his keep like a Vaishya, took care of cleaning the house, like a Shudra, and protected his family's interest like a Kshatriya. The guru was pleased and told the boy he was fit to be taught and initiated into the Brahmin's life. However the very fact that the boy had to refer to his birth to determine his caste as a first step indicates that the default caste of a person was always determined by birth.

The caste system originated in nomenclature and was changed through the influence of a powerful elite into an enforced system. Indeed, the Dharmashastras (which are collections of Hindu codes and laws) say that caste is not determined by birth but by action in life. One must also keep in mind that since the dawn of Vedanta and with the increase of Tantrics of the Shiva-Shakti variety many Vedic-rooted people (i.e. Hindus) rejected the stratified and corrupted version of varna-ashram that became caste. On the other hand, caste still retained a significant influence on modern Hindu society.

Brahmin (priest), Kshatriya (warrior, nobility), Vaishya (large group of ordinary workers, merchants, businessmen, etc.) and Shudras (menial workers, janitors, sweepers, etc.) were the four varnas. Each varna was said to possess certain characteristics: i.e. the shudra was often someone with a violent temper, crude tongue, given to intoxicants, not loving of God; the Vaishya was hardworking, dutiful but given to avarice and while believing in God, was not spiritually inclined. The Kshatriya was noble, learned and beyond all selfless, his or her duty being the administration of the people and fighting of battles against intruders; often very spiritually inclined. The Brahmin was kind, loving, was the society's storehouse (especially when scriptures were memorized) of the ancient scriptures, the performer of rituals, a lover of God and the most spiritually advanced member of a community.

Thus, one sees that the original conception of caste was that people who acted a certain way, fell into a certain category. If one were born into a Brahmin family, but drank and had no respect for one's fellow living beings and God, one was simply not a Brahmin. This view is supported by a reading of the Bhagavad Gita that held that caste was a function of practice, rather than based on birth. It is worthy to note that all three acharayas, Sankara, Ramanuja, and Madhva all subscribed to this view. The lives of great Vaishnavite saints such as Kanaka Dasa and Tukaram demonstrated that single-minded devotion to God was the sole criteria for Him, not birth.

It was considered highly auspicious if someone had the good fortune to be born into a Brahmin family and then, following the family tradition, established oneself as a Brahmin by actually living the life of a Brahmin. Hence, the term twice born, or dvija. Clearly it is far easier to move down than up the ladder of caste.

One sees in scriptural descriptions of caste another motivation: it was a way of explaining the natural inequalities into which all human societies are necessarily born. It was the unhappy truth that some people were born into poor families, or in the slums, and others into the families of holy men. Explaining to people in clear terms that the natural processes of life and death, reincarnation, led to certain circumstances with which one was confronted. Thus, the varnas were a good way of helping people who had no chance of being warriors or priests, due to their upbringing or native intelligence/ability, to live happily within their life and feel good about attaining God through proper adherence to their own dharma (overall duties).

Over and over again, the Upanishads and other great texts spoke to the nature of caste being a mere name and not defining whom one was. Calling someone a Vaishya was supposed to be like calling someone a blue-collar worker today.

The established Brahmins, whose duty it was to act as gurus (teachers) for new generations of Brahmins, by culling those worthy of Brahminhood from all the young boys of the society, began discriminating based on caste. This practice began to become more ingrained, and social mobility became a thing of the past but for in a few areas of India. Even today, however, in the most traditional of circles, sanyassis (renunciates of the world) are given the utmost respect, as it is said that by leaving human society, they leave behind their distinctive social characteristics, including caste.

The Hindu tantrics are a part of Hinduism whose scriptural texts, the Agamic strand known collectively as the Tantras, assert their descent from the Vedas, especially the Atharva-Veda. Claiming that the Vedic rituals no longer applied to Kali Yuga, the fourth and final age of humanity in Hinduism that sees morality ebb to complete dissolution until the end of the earth, the Tantrics see themselves as natural continuations of the Vedas through Hindu yogic practices. Among other progressions from Vedic Hinduism, the Tantrics spoke of the caste system as it had evolved as unfounded and inapplicable to humanity and spiritual growth.

Many Hindu yogis and sages have, over the centuries, constantly denounced enforced caste as an aberration of any faith in God. The great non-dualist, Vedantic jnana-yogin (Yogi of discrimination) Shri Adi Shankaracharya (8th century), denounced caste as but one more indication of one's weak, ego-driven self and the flouting of Brahman (the impersonal, ultimate monist basis of Hindu belief). Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu (15th century), the powerful bhakti (loving devotee) of Brahman in its manifestations of Vishnu, also denounced caste. But like most societies across the world, the tenets of the religion were completely ignored in the face of personal gain and the corruption of power. The strongly cemented and oppressive caste hierarchy was so ingrained in the Indian consciousness that it was all but indestructible.

Modern perceptions of caste

The caste system was perhaps first exposed to the Western world during the British occupation and rule. Herbert Risley's The Tribes and Castes of Bengal, published in 1892, was one of the first works on this practice by a Western scholar. Some scholars suggest that the resulting depiction of the caste system was as much a product of European racist theories, and the interests of colonial rule, rather than Indian cultural realities. Certainly the color hierarchy from "white" to "black" was typically interpreted at this time in racial terms. Modern scholars further suggest that prior to the colonial era, castes were much more open and flexible. There are several passages in the Vedas that indicate that the four varnas were initially based on professions and not simply determined by birth. It was during a later period that the current rigid caste system came into place.

In any case, the Vedas are said to talk about only four castes. Contemporary India however, has numerous castes and sub-castes, many of which are officially documented (primarily to determine those deserving reservation, an affirmative action process similar to and predating the US system) through the census, and these divisions have fragmented the Indian society. Caste-based politics have strong roots in many Indian states. Sometimes, converts to other religions like Christianity, or Islam, retain their caste identity, often due to the economic benefits it carries, and also to retain their ties with the community for social reasons.

The embracement of the lower castes into the mainstream community was brought about by Mahatma Gandhi who called them "Harijans" (people of God).

Presently, India has tough laws against individual discrimination on the basis of caste. There is a policy for the socio-economic upliftment of the erstwhile lower castes, by the provision of free education till graduation, reservation of admission seats in institutions for higher education, and a 50% quota in government jobs with faster promotions. In spite of these affirmative actions, identification and discrimination based on castes is quite common in the Indian society. Matrimony between members of different castes is still looked down upon and not very popular. Caste based atrocities are still fairly common in many economically backward states and isolated rural districts.

These affirmative actions have often been challenged in courts, and through mass protests. Anti-reservation activists allege that the process, which they suspect is fuelled by political gains, artificially fosters the divisions. A few allege that in the process of categorizing people "who need reservation", caste based identities become firmly entrenched in the Indian psyche. Many also allege that the progress of the meritorious is cramped by the reservation system, which has not been set any deadline by the Constitution of India. Pro-reservation activists allege that the system helps in upliftment of the long-suppressed masses and needs to be in place until all sections achieve an equal status in the Indian society. There is a third viewpoint, which suggests that reservations should be continued but based on the financial plight of an individual rather than on his/her caste. This debate has raged on for the last two decades in India.

Quotes about Caste

The late Swami Krishnananda, the successor to Swami Sivananda and former head of Divine Life Society, noted the following about caste in his autobiography:

"While the caste system was originally evolved for the necessary classification of human duty in order to preserve the organic stability of society, its original meaning and its philosophical foundation was forgotten through the passage of time, and bigotry and fanaticism took its place through the preponderance of egoism, greed and hatred, contrary to the practice of true religion as a social expression of inner spiritual aspiration for a gradual ascent, by stages, to God Almighty. Vidura, famous in the Mahabharata, was born of a Shudra woman. But he had the power to summon the son of Brahma, from Brahmaloka, by mere thought. Which orthodox Brahmin can achieve this astounding feat? It is, therefore, necessary for everyone to have consideration for the facts of world-unity and goodwill, Sarvabhuta-hita, as the great Lord mentions in the Bhagavad Gita. Justice is more than law. No one's body is by itself a Brahmin, because it is constituted of the five gross elements,- earth, water, fire, air and ether. Else, it would be a sin on the part of a son to consign to flames the lifeless body of a Brahmin father. It is, therefore, not proper to victimise a colleague by an action plan of any religious community wedded to fundamentalist doctrines."

Even as early in the Mahabharata period, those same feelings were evoked. Yudhisthira, when questioned by Yama in the form of a Yaksha, about what makes one a Brahmin. Yudhisthira, without hesitation, said that it is conduct alone that makes one a Brahmin.


Caste in the West

See also

Notable people

Literature

  • Bodhisattva Ambedkar’s 1948 work The Untouchables: Who Were They and Why They Became Untouchables? as reprinted in Volume 7 of Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Writings and Speeches, published by Government of Maharashtra 1990
  • Ambedkar, B.R. Who were the Shudras and other writings. 1946.
  • Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age, Paperback Edition, Cambridge University Press 2001
  • Dumont, Louis Homo Hierarchicus: The Caste System and Its Implications. Complete English edition, revised. 540 p. 1970, 1980 Series: (NHS) Nature of Human Society
  • Christophe Jaffrelot, India's Silent Revolution: The Rise of the Lower Castes, C. Hurst & Co 2003
  • Kane, Pandurang Vaman (1880 - 1972): History of Dharmasastra : (ancient and mediaeval, religious and civil law). -- Poona : Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute. 1962 - 1975.
  • Murray Milner, Jr., Status and Sacredness: A General Theory of Status Relations and an Analysis of Indian Culture, New York: Oxford University Press, 1994
  • Ranganayakamma, For the solution of the "Caste" question, Buddha is not enough, Ambedkar is not enough either, Marx is a must, Hyderabad : Sweet Home Publications, 2001
  • Alain Danielou, Les Quatre Sens de la Vie, Paris 1976
  • New Internationalist, July 2005, "Combatting Caste"

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