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The Kingdom of Mysore (Template:Lang-kn, 1399-1947) was founded by Yaduraya in 1399 as a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire and became an independent kingdom in the early 17th century after the decline of the Empire. Though many scholars and musicians may have existed in the Mysore court from the beginning of its establishment, references to records of scholars, writers and their writings only exist from the time of Raja Wodeyar (1578), while the writings themselves are only available from the time of King Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1638). The reign of the Mysore kingdom is considered a golden age in Kannada literature, especially in the fields of musical treatises, compositions and drama. Not only were the kingdom's courts adorned with famous writers and composers, but many of the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and have made important contributions.
During this period, though traditional literature in philosophy and religion continued to be popular, a wave of writings in such new genres as chronicles (vamshavali), biographies, histories, encyclopedias, novels, dramas, and treatises on music and musical compositions gained prominence. Yakshagana, a unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation, gained popularity in the 18th century. Musical and devotional compositions were written in dvipadi (couplets), tripadi (three line form)choupadi (four line form) shatpadi (six line form), saptapadi (seven line form), Vachana, sangatya (verses rendered musically and rhythmically to the accompaniment of an instrument) and champu (mixed prose-verse) metres. A light and lyrical style of Carnatic compositions in Kannada called javali or javadi was introduced by King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.
The Haridasa movement, which began in the 14th century with the saints of the Madhva order of Udupi, continued to flourish, with latter-day saints writing many dasara padagalu (devotional songs of dasas). Literature by Brahmin and Shaivite writers was numerous, with some well-known Jain writers also making important contributions. Among royalty, Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1672-1704) and Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868) are well known for their literary proficiency, though other kings and queens also made notable contributions. Other major influences on Kannada literature, particularly in the last two centuries, include English literature, classical Sanskrit literature, the changing political situation in India (including Indians' struggle for freedom), the rise of Kannada nationalism and the arrival of the printing press.
Overview
| Developments | Date |
|---|---|
| Dominance of Vaishnava and Veerashaiva writings |
1565–1947 CE |
| Historicals and Biographies. The last Old-Kannada grammar. Age of Sarvajna |
1565–1700 CE |
| Birth of the Yakshagana art. | 1565–1620 CE |
| Proliferation of the Yakshagana art. | 1620–1900 CE |
| Proliferation of Haridasa literature | 1687–1800 CE |
| Birth of Modern Kannada literature. | 1800–1900 CE |
| Influence of English and Sanskrit literature. |
1850–1925 CE |
Literary developments prior to 16th century
By the mid-16th century, the Kannada speaking region and its literature had been influenced by three important socio-religious developments: Jainism (9th–12th centuries),Veerashaivism (lit, "Heroic Shaivism", 12th century onward) which propagated the philosophy of Basavanna and devotion to the god Shiva, and Vaishnavism (14th century onward), which propagated the philosophy of Madhvacharya and devotion to the god Vishnu – the Veerashaiva and Vaishnava literatures collectively being categorised as Bhakti literature. In addition, writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.
Jain works, were written in the classical champu metre and were centred on the lives of Tirthankars (saints), princes and personages associated with the Jain ascetism. There literature, often royal court sponsored, extolled the virtues of patron kings and emperors, comparing them to heros from the Hindu epics. The early Veerashaiva literature (1150–1200 CE), comprising pithy poems called Vachanas (lit, "utterance", "saying" or "sentence") were written in the native tripadi (three-line verse composed of eleven ganas or prosodic units), hadugabba (song-poem) and free verse metres, and in a language close to the spoken form of Kannada. After the decline of the Chalukya Empire and the Kalachuri Kingdom in late 12th century, Veerashaiva writers adopted the preachings of the saints and devotees of the bygone era and made them the protagonists of their writings, popularly written in form of commentaries, anthologies and biographies. The Veerashiava writers in the Hoysala court (12th–14th century) established other native metres; ragale, shatpadi, and a new composition called sangatya. From around late 12th century, the influence of Jainism and its literature was generally on the wane. However, the coastal areas of modern Karnataka, where important Jain texts were writtten, remained a stronghold.
The Vaishnava writers of the 15th and early 16th century Vijayanagara court consisted of two groups: the Brahmin commentators who typically wrote under the patronage of royalty; and the Bhakti (devotion) poets who played no role in courtly matters, instead taking the message of God to the people in the form of melodious songs. The philosophy of Madhvacharya, which originated in the Kannada–speaking region in the 13th century, spread beyond its borders over the next two centuries. The itinerant Haridasas, best described as mystic saint-poets, spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya in simple Kannada, winning mass appeal by preaching devotion to God and extolling the virtues of jnana (enlightenment), bhakti (devotion) and vairagya (detachment). Inspired by the Vachana writers who used the song-prose medium to write their poems, the Haridasa poets used genres such as the Kirthane (musical compositions with two refrains – composition based on raga, or tune and tala, or rhythm), the Suladi (rhythm-based) and the Ugabhoga (melody-based) to convey their devotion to God. Overall, Kannada writings had changed from marga ("formal", due to Sanskritic influence) to desi ("vernacular") and become more accessible to the common man.
Contemporary literary developments
Yakshagana (lit, "Songs of the demi-gods") is a popular form of rustic "folk-dance-drama" of southern India, the best-known of which is from the South Kanara region of modern Karnataka state. There are a variety of art forms collectively termed as Yakshagana; the "Yakshagana Tenkutittu" (lit, "Yakshagana of the southern style") and simply "Yakshagana", popular primarily in the Mangalore region, the "Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalaata" (lit "Yakshagana of northern style performed outdoors"), popular field plays primarily in the Udupi and sourrounding regions of modern Karnataka, "Yakshagana Kuchipudi" of modern Andhra Pradesh, and the "Yakshagana Kauvanji" and "Yakshagana Bhagavata Mela" of modern Tamil Nadu. Other art forms grouped under this category are the "Nagamandalam", a dance meant to appease Naga, the snake god, and a vareity of spirit (bhuta) dances. There are some similarities in the dance steps, the costumes worn and the music played in these dance-dramas.
Noted modern Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth suggested that the earliest forms of dance-drama were called the Gandharagrama and are mentioned in the work Narada Siska date between 600–200 BCE. This developed into an intermediate form called the Ekkalagana which finds mention in 12th century Kannada writings Mallinathapurana (c. 1105, by Nagachandra) and the Chandraprabha Purana (c. 1189, by Aggala). According to M.M. Bhat, a scholar from the Institude of traditional cultures, the Chattana native compositions, written in various interspersed metres and mentioned in the Kavirajamarga (850) could be considered the earliest forerunners of the Kannada language Yakshaganas'. According to R.R. Diwakar, chief editor of the book Karnataka through the ages, there are references in literature to a vibrant Kannada theatre as early as the 12th century. These dramas were field-plays based on the Hindu epics and historical themes, containing music, dialogue and dance. For example, the Kannada writing Abhinava Dasakumara Charitre (c. 1300 Chavundarasa) refers to a Dasavatara aata ("Dasavatara play").
According to Martha Bush Ashton, the Yakshagana of Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh may have reached a mature stage during the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire. The earliest epigraphal evidence of the existance a dance-drama is from a c. 1565 inscription from Bellary which mentions a grant made to a troupe of Tala-Maddale peformers. Around this time, the earliest available manuscripts containg Yakshagana plays were written; the Virata Parva (c. 1565) by Vishnu of Ajapura, modern Brahmavara in South Canara, and the Sugriva Vijaya (mid-16th century) by Kandukuru Rudrakavi. The earliest available edition of Yakshagana plays, called the Sabhaparva, is dated to c. 1621. According to Shivarama Karanth, the region between Udupi and Ikkeri (also known as Malnad) could be the region where Kannada Yakshanagas originated. He based this conclusion on certian findings; the earliest known Yakshagana writers and available manuscripts are from this region. Also, the forerunners of the Yakshagana, referred to as the Bhagavata aata and Dasavatara aata, are based on the life of the god Vishnu and in particular, the god Krishna, an incarnation of Vishnu. He notes that the Udupi region from where these plays originate is the location of the monastery established by the Dvaita philosopher Madhvacharya, where worship of the god Krishna has been popular since the 13th century.
17th-century literature
Template:Kannada poets in Mysore Kingdom
Early literary culture
Raja Wodeyar (1578–1617) became the first soverign king of Mysore, having ousted the Vijayanagara governor at Srirangapatna. However, the fledgling kingdom still owed nominal alligience to the diminished Vijayanagara Empire ruling from Chandragiri. From this period, the foundation of a formidable kingdom was layed. These developments became a catalyst for the production of the rich literature of the decades to follow. Tirumalarya I, his court poet composed the Karna Vrittanta Kathe in sangatya metre. Raja Wodeyar's grandson, King Chamaraja Wodeyar V (1617–1637) is the earliest among a long list of Mysore kings known for their direct contribution to the fine arts. The king wrote Chamarajokti Vilasa, a translation of the Sanskrit Ramayana of sage Valmiki, Ashwashastra, Hayasara Samucchaya and Brahmottra Kanda.
During the rule of King Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1637–1659), the Kingdom of Mysore attained complete freedom, evident from the issue of gold coins called Phanams. Govinda Vaidya, the most well-known poet in the royal court, wrote Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijaya (1648) in sangatya metre. The eulogy, written in 26 chapters, compares the patron king to "God Narasimha" and dwells on details of the king's court and his kingdom. It also gives useful details of the types of music composed and instruments used to render them. Bhattakalanka Deva, a Jain writer from Haduvalli town in South Kanara stands out as a grammarian of extraordinary talent. He was the last of the three notables who wrote comprehensively on Old-Kannada grammar (Nagavarma II and Keshiraja being the other two). He was an expert in Sanskrit grammar as well. His extant Kannada grammar, Karnataka Sabdanusasanam, contains 592 Sanskrit sutras (literary form written for concision) with vritti (glossary) and vyakhya (commentary), written in four padas (chapters) making useful references to contemporary and earlier writers. The work is modelled more on the style of the early Sanskrit grammarians, Panini, Pujyapada and others and is considered exhaustive. His emphasis on the importance of Kannada language and its rich literary and poetic history is evident and was meant to be a rebuttal to the callous attitude shown by contemporary Sanskrit scholars towards Kannada language.
Shadaksharadeva is the last of the notables who attempted to revive the champu metre. A Veerashaiva by faith and the head of the Yelandur monastery, he was under the patronage of the Mysore court. A bilingual writer in Sanskrit and Kannada, his writings propagate his faith in the god Shiva. He wrote three well-known works in Kannada: Rakashekara Vilasa (1657) contains love poems rivalling those of Lakshmisa's famous Vaishnava writing Jaimimi Bharata (17th century). It was written during the poets youth and hence uses the sentiment of love as its dominant theme. The writing is a well known Tamil story of King Satyendra Chola and is based on an earlier work Bhavachintaratna by Vijayanagara writer Gubbi Mallanarya. In a noteworthy piece of elegiac poetry, the poet describes the lamentation of a mother, in his own inimitable style. Upon hearing the news of her son's death by trampling under the hooves of Prince Rajashekara's horse, the mother rushes to the scene, and mourns holding the body of her son in her lap. Vrishabhendra Vijaya, easily his best work is an poem of epic proportions, written in fourty two cantos and 4,000 stanzes. Sabarasankara Vilasa is a poem in five cantos narrating a popular tale of the battle between the god Shiva and the Pandava prince Arjuna. To test Arjuna's devotion in him, Shiva disguises himself as a hunter and fights a fierce battle with Arjuna. Toward the end, impressed with Arjuna's devotion, Shiva bestows him a weapon called Pashuptastra.
Other notable Kannada writers in the court of Narasaraja Wodeyar are Shantaveera Deshika (Shivaganga Charitra in sangatya metre, 1650), Bhaskara (Beharaganita, on mathematics), Nanjakavi (Kanteerava Narasaraja Charitra) and Timmarasa (Markandeyaramayana). Chamaiah (or Channarya), a court poet of King Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar (1659–1673), wrote a metrical history and a eulogy his patron king in Devarajendra Sangatya.
The golden age
The reign of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704) is a high point in the early history of the Kingdom of Mysore. The king was an able warrior and is known to have defeated even the Marathas on occassion, held the upper hand against the Nizam of Golconda and brought the Keladi territories under his domain by 1682. A religious minded king and a Srivaishnava by faith, he was an able administrator. His reign produced numerous prolific writers, not the least the king himself – he was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and a musician – the earliest composer of the dynasty. A famous treatise on music called Geeta Gopala, written in opera style, is credited to him. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Geeta Govinda (c. 1200), it had an originality of its own. The work differs from the original in that the god Krishna and his Gopikas' are the protagonists instead of Krishna and his consort Radha. The writing consists of two parts of seven sections each, each section having seven songs and hence fitting the description of a shatpadi composition. It is considered an asset to student of music and literature. Commentaries on the Bhagavata, the epic Mahabharata, and thirty verse long Chikkadevaraya binappa ("Kings Petition"), a collection of devotional poems in prose composed in praise of the god Cheluva Narayanaswamy of Melkote are the kings other creations.
Tirumalarya II, a native of Srirangapatna and son of Tirumalarya I was held in high esteem in the Mysore court. A childhood friend of the King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar , he served as his prime minister. Tirumalarya II authored five notable writings: Chikka Devaraja Saptapadi (1698), a musical treatise and a eulogy for his patron king rendered in seven sections comprising fifty-two songs, it exalts the king to the level of "God on Earth". Along with the kings writing Geetha Gopala, this work is considered one of the important 17th century treatises on music, Apratimavira Charite ("History of the Peerless Hero"), a rhetorical eulogy of the king and treatise on poetics, Chikkadevaraja Vijaya, an account of the king's conquests, life and ancestors in champu metre comprising six chapters, Chikkadevaraya Yaso-bhushana, Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, written in prose and one of the earliest contemporary historicals, describing the king's ancestry. In addition, Tirumalarya II composed seventy songs, most of which are in Kannada and a few in Telugu.
Chikkupadhyaya (or Lakshmipathi), a native of Terakanambi town in Mysore district and a Srivaishnava by faith is one of the most prolific Kannadas writers of his time with over thirty works, mostly written in the shatpadi metre. His best-known works are Vishnupurana (1691); Kamalachala Mahatmya (1681); Hastigiri Mahatmya (1679); Rukmangada Charite (1681); Satvikabrahma-Vidya-Vilasa treating on the Visishtadvaita philosophy; Yadugiri Mahatmya, a eulogy of saint Kadambi Srirangacharya; Yadavagiri Mahatmya, a eulogy of saint Kadambi Lakshmanacharya; numerous compositions in the champu, sangatya, and gadya metres; seventy songs in praise of his patron King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (pen-name Chikkadevaraja); a collection of other songs called Shringarada Hadugalu and commentaries. Singaraya, a brother of Tirumalarya II, wrote Mitravinda Govinda in 1680 – the earliest known classical drama in Kannada and a work inspired by the Sanskrit drama Ratnavali by Sriharsha. Srirangamma and Sanchi Honnamma were the most recognised women poets in the court. Srirangamma (1685) wrote Padmini Kalyana, and Sanchi Honnamma (lit, "Honamma the betel bag bearer"), a Vokkaliga from Yelandur won accolades for her unique writing Hadibadeya Dharma containing 479 stanzes in sangatya metre. Despite being employed as a betel bag bearer and a maid to Queen Devajammani, she claimed Alasingaraya, a court poet, her Guru. her writing narrates the struggles of women in society, and stresses and their need to fulfill their daily roles in family life.
Other writers under the patronage of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar were: Chidananda, a Jain poet wrote philosophical compositions called Tatwada Kirtanegalu (1675), Neeti Nrimaya and Munivamsha Bhyudaya in sangatya metre; Vaikunta Dasa (1680), a native of Belur who composed Kirtanas on Vishnu (pen-name "Vaikunta") and songs such as Kapatamata; Timmakavi wrote Hari Vilasa in sangatya metre and Yadavagiri Mahatmya (1677); Mallikarjuna (Sriranga Mahatmya, 1678) and Mallarasa (Dasavatara Charite)
Age of mavericks
Lakshmisa's Jaimini Bharata, written in shatpadi metre is the poets Kannada version of the epic Mahabharata and is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval period. A superb story-teller and a dramatist, the author was a native of Devanur in Kadur taluk and writing is dated to the middle of 16th or late 17th century. A collection of stories, the poem contains the famous tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author has succeeded in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times.
A mendicant poet and moralist whose origin is shrouded in mystery, Sarvajna, (literally "The all knowing") has left his mark on Kannada literature and the Kannada speaking people. Some clues in the first fourteen of a series of poems written by him ("Reminiscences of Birth") give an indication about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. It is believed he was born in Ambalur (Abbalur in modern Haveri district) to an illicit relationship between a Brahmin man called Basavarasa and Mali, the wife of a potter named Mala. Davasale Sarvajna as he calls himself in one of these poems, grew up to be a candid and outspoken boy. Alarmed that he may someday reveal her exra-marital relationship to her husband, his mother may have sent Sarvajna out of the house. Unable to bear the taunts of society, he may have become a drifter. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest.
Scholars place him between the 15th and 18th centuries based on other literary evidence. A few of his poems give more hints about his adulthood, his Guru and a possible unsuccessful marriage. After the deah of his guru, Sarvajna may have taken to ascetism, acquiring knowledge from the world, rather than from formal education, writing poems about the nature of people and places. His witty poems, numbering more about 2000, are his observations on the art of living, the purpose of life and the ways of the world written in a simple tripadi metre popular in folk literature. A tomb in Hirekerur (modern Haveri district) it is said, is his final resting place. Neither was he patronized by royalty nor did he write for fame, his main aim was to instruct people about morality. All his poems end with his name "Sarvajna".
Other Brahmin writers worthy of mention from the 17th century are Ramachandra (Asrasastra), Tirumalevaidya (Uttara Ramayana), Nagarasa (Bhagavadgite) and Timmarasa (Kshetraganita on geometry). Among Jains, Padmana Pandita (Hayasara Samuchchaya) and Chandrashekara (Ramachandra charitra, story of the Hindu god Rama) are notable. Among Veerashaiva writers are Harisvara (Prabhudeva Purana), Siddhananjesa, (Raghavanka Charitra and Gururaja Charitra), Prasabhushana (or Pemmisetti, Gurubhaktandara Charitre) and Mummadi Tamma (Sankara Samhita), Parvatesvara (Chatuacharya Purana), Sejjeya Siddhalingaraya (Malayaraja Charite) are well-known.
18th century
Age of Yakshagana
Template:Kannada poets in 18th century Mysore Kingdom Yakshagana, the rustic form of opera, which draws its themes from the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata has an established history in the Karnataka region of over 400 years. In its rudimentary form, the script of the play contains poetic songs (Prasanga) sung by the musician (Bhagavata), to which improvised dialogue (matu) are added. Witty comments are interjected by clowns (Hasyagara). Musical instruments include drums (maddale and Chende) and a harminoum like instrument(sruti). The Sugriva Vijaya (mid-16th century) by Kandukuru Rudrakavi is one of the earliest available manuscripts. The play draws its theme from the story of the monkey-king Sugriva who overthrew his powerful brother Vali to regain his kingdom, in the Hindu epic Ramayana. While historians and scholars have proposed various theories about the early origin and the forerunners of Yakshagana, according to the musicologist Meera Rajaram Pranesh, the credit of writing the earliest available Yakshagana plays that include sangita (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance) goes to the polyglot King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673–1714). The king, who is also known as "Mookarasu" ("mute king") was proficient in Kannada, Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Prakrit. His fourteen Yakshagana compositions, written in various languages but in the Kannada script were discovered at the Government manuscripts library in Chennai.
Revival of Haridasa literature
With the passing of the Vijayanagara era, creation of Haridasa literature seemed to slow down for about a century despite attempts of two dasa (devotee) poets, Mahapati Dasa (1611–1681), who wrote 600 compositions, and his son Krishna Rao. The tradition however recovered momentum in early of the 18th century under the able guidance of Vijaya Dasa (1687–1755), a native of Ceekalaparavi in Raichur district. A disciple of Purandara Dasa tradition, Vijaya Dasa was inspired by the establishment of the monastery of saint Raghavendra Swami (of the Madhva order) at Mantralayam. Apart from enriching the literary genre with 25,000 lyrical and moving compositions written with the pen-name "Vijaya Vittala", Vijaya Dasa is credited with popularising and forwarding the teachings of the philosopher Madhvacharya of Udupi. Most well-known among his able desciples are Gopala Dasa (pen-name "Gopala Vittala", 1721–1769), Kallur Subbanna Dasa ("Vyasa Vittala"), Mohana Dasa ("Mohana Vittala"), Sheshagiri Dasa ("Guru Vijaya Vittala"), Prasanna Venkata Dasa (Prasanna Venkata), Igi Venkatacharya (Casndeva Vittala"). Later, Gopala Dasa inspired Jagannatha Dasa to take to the Haridasa fold.
Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809) is considered the most famous of the late-18th century Haridasas. Apart from a number of devotional songs, he is credited with two important writings; the Harikathamritasara, which treats on the philosophy of Madhvacharya, is considered an important Haridasa piece. Written in the native shatpadi metre (six line verse) with touches of poetry, it contains 32 chapters and 988 stanzas in all. The Tattva Suvvali, containing 1,200 pithy and proverbial poems of which only half are available, and written in the native tripadi (three line) metre, it is said to have been a consolation to his widowed daughter. Among his many disciples, Pranesha Dasa, Prema Dasa and Kargagi Dasappa are the best-known. Helavanakatte Giriyamma (early 18th century), a women Haridasa, authored fifty songs, five narrative poems including Chandrahasana Kathe, in a language that belies her humble education but also her deep devotion. According to H.S. Shiva Prakash, about 300 saint-poets from this cadre enriched Kannada literature during the 18th–19th centuries.
Other writings
Cheluvambe, a queen of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar I, was an accomplished Kannada writer. Her notable works include Varanandi Kalyana written in the sangatya metre. The story narrates the wedding of Varanandi, the daughter of the Badshah of Delhi and the god Cheluvaraya Swamy of Melkote. In the writing, the author envisioned Varanandi to be a reincarnation of Satyabhama, the consort of the Hindu god Krishna. Her other compositions include Venkatachala Mahatmyam, a lullaby song written in choupadi (four line verse) metre in devotion to the Hindu god Venkateshwara residing on the Vrishabha hill, songs centred on Alamelu Mangamma, the consort of the Hindu god Venkateshwara of Tirupati, and songs in praise of the god Cheluvanarayana. Shalyada Krishnaraja, a poet and member from the royal family was proficient writer in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. His contributions include devotional songs, Vachanas (free verse) and sangatya compositions (Nija Dipika Ratna), Gadya compositions (Anubhava Rasayana), and Kirthanes (Bhakti Marga Sarovara, Gnana Sarovara and Shalyada Arasinavara Tikina Kirtane).
Kalale Nanjaraja was the most noted of the Shaiva writers in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (1734–1766). He earned the honorific Nutan Bhojaraja, a comparison to King Bhoja of medieval times, for his literary pursuits. A native of Kalale town near Nanjangud, Nanjaraja came from a influential family of warriors, statesman and scholars. He was politically active and is known to have created a power centre, holding court in parallel to King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II. He was proficient in multiple languages and authored more than twenty writings in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu. Among his Kannada writings, Kukudgiri Mahatmya, and the musical composition, Aravattu muvara trivadhi, narrating the life of 63 ancient devotees of the god Shiva is well known.
Well-known Shaiva writers were Chenniah who worte in the sangatya metre (Padmini Parinaya, 1720), Nuronda who eulogised his patron King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II in Soundarya Kavya (c. 1740) in sangatya metre, and Sankara Kavi (Chorabasava Charitre, 18th century). Notable Jain writers of the period were Payanna (Ahimsacharitre), Padmaraja (Pujyapada Charitre, 1792), Padmanabha (Ramachandra Charitre), Surala (Padmavati Charitre), and Jayendra (Karnataka Kuvalayananda).Vaishnava writers who distinguished themselves were Lakshmakavi (Bharata, Rukmangada Charite), Venkatesha (Halasya Mahatmya, champu metre), Konayya (Krishnarjuna Sangara), Timmamatya (Ramabhyudaya Kathakusumamanjari, the poets version of the epic Ramayana) and Balavaidya Cheluva (Lilavati and encyclopedia of precious stones called Ratnasastra).
19th/20th-century literature
King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868) is called the "Morning Star of the Renaissance in Karnataka". He gave munificient grants to scholars of all kinds while being a prolific writer in Kannada himself. Over forty notable writings are attributed to him of which a poetic romance called Saugandhika Parinaya is best known. There are two versions of this - one is a sangatya and the other a drama. In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa, who curses Devendra (Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. Krishnaraja Wodeyar III also wrote three important treatises. They are the Sri Tatwanidhi and Swara Chudamani on music and the Sara Sangraha Bharata on dance. For the first time in South India, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III incorporated musical iconography into writings on music in his Sri Tatwanidhi. This work is considered a beautiful combination of literature, music and painting. The language used is Sanskrit and is written in the Kannada script and is essentially an encyclopedia of Purana, Agama, Jyothishya (astrology), music, history (Itihasa), Tantra and Shilpa (art). It was written on 1500 royal sized sheets in nine chapters containing one thousand pictures. After 1799, the British completely took over the administration of the kingdom and the king devoted all his time to developing the fine arts, earning the title "Abhinava Bhoja".
In the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, Aliya Lingaraja Urs, a native of Heggadadevanakote (in modern Mysore district), became the foremost writer in Kannada and Sanskrit. His name, Aliya, means "son-in-law" in Kannada as he was married to two of the king's daughters. To the credit of Lingaraja Urs are over fifty works spanning such forms as literature, songs, Javalis, Yakshagana and drama. For his contributions to the fine arts, he earned the title Ubhaya Kavita Visharada (master of poetry in two languages) and Sarasa Kavi Kula Tilaka. His compositions are written with many pen names all starting with the term "linga", such as "lingaraja" and "Linganripa". Famous among his Kannada writings is the well known poem Prabhavati Parinaya and the Yakshagana called Girija Kalyana in sangatya metre containing six chapters. In this work the author narrates the birth of Girija the daughter of Himavanta, her youthful days, her penance and finally her marriage to the Hindu god Shiva.
Eager to spread their gospel in Kannada, Christian missionaries were responsible for printing the earliest books in that language (1817). The first Kannada Bible was printed in 1820, the Rev. Reeve compiled the earliest English-Kannada dictionary in 1824 and the Rev. Carrey published a Kannada grammar in 1817. Modern Kannada prose was born in 1823 when Mudra Manjusha, a translation of the Sanskrit play by Vishakadatta, was written by Kempu Narayana in the court of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. The influence of English literature and poetry on Kannada was evident from the numerous songs of prayer composed by the missionaries.
The rise of Devalapurada Nanjunda to the stature of court poet under King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III came under unusual circumstances. A native of Nagarle village in Nanjangud (modern Mysore district), he received his education at Devalapura and was initially employed as a mere attendant in the king's palace. When an important seer (saint) from the Sringeri Advaita order visited the king's court, the king ordered his staff to contribute one month's salary as a token of respect for the seer. Unable to come up with this amount, Nanjunda composed a poem for the seer. Impressed by his poetic ability, the seer advised that king to make Nanjunda his court poet. For his scholarship in Kannada and Sanskrit, he received the title "Ubhaya Bhasha Kavi". Among his famous compositions in Kannada are Sougandhika Parinaya in sangatya metre, Samudra Mathana Kathe as a Yakshagana, Sri Krishna Sarvabhoumara Charitre in sangatya metre and Krishnendra Gite in choupadi metre. In Sanskrit, he composed the Pattabhisheka Mahotsava Varnanam.
A luminary in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and Chamaraja Wodeya IX (1868-1901) was Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore. Known as Kannada Nataka Pitamaha, Shastri composed the first state anthem of the Mysore kingdom, Kayou Sri Gowri, for the coronation of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. Because of his proficiency in Kannada and Sanskrit and his knowledge of the fine arts, especially drama, he was appointed the head of Chamaraja Nataka Sabha (a drama college) in 1882. Basavappa Shastry authored many dramas in Kannada and translated Shakespeare's "Othello" into its Kannada version called Shurasena Charite with the help of D.C. Subba Rao. His translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are many and include Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali. In addition to translating or writing original dramas, Basavappa Shastry incorporated hundreds of musical compositions into the script of the drama.
Mysore Karigiri Rao, a native of Tumkur and an expert in Sanskrit with a knowledge of both theoretical and practical aspects of music, wanted to write in simple Kannada about music that could appeal to all musicians. As a result, he wrote two treatises called the Gana Vidya Rahasya Prakashini and Sangita Subhodhini focusing on the "lakshya" and "lakshana" aspects of music. He was a court poet and musician during the rule of King Chamaraja Wodeyar IX and held such titles as Sangeeta Vidya Kanteerava. Other well known Kannada writers in the court of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX were S.G. Narasimhacharya, Nandalige Lakshminaranappa, Dhondo Narasimha Mulabaglu, Santa Kavi and B. Ventakacharya.
Mysore Vasudevacharya, a child prodigy, was born in Mysore in 1865 to Subramanyacharya (of Chevur, modern Tamil Nadu) and Krishna Bai. From the age of five, the talented lad was patronised by the King Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. In his early years he learnt Sanskrit at the Maharaj's College and veena from Veena Padmanabiah, and eventually was sent by the king to learn music from Patnam Subramanya Iyer of Tiruvayyur (in modern Tamil Nadu). The pinnacle of his musical career came when he performed at the National Congress Convention in 1926 at Belagavi before an audience made up of Mahatma Gandhi and other leaders. Apart from a vast array of compositions in Sanskrit and Telugu, he wrote two books in Kannada, one of them an autobiography called Nenapugalu ("Memories") and Nha Kanda Kalavidaru ("The Musicians I Have Met") in which he wrote the biographies of many well-known musicians.
Modern Kannada literature gained momentum under the patronage of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV (1902-1940). The earliest modern novels in the Kannada language are the Suryakantha by Lakshmi Gadagkar (1892) and the Indrabayi (1899) by Gulvadi Venkata Rao. Translations of novels from Marathi and Bengali were also popular. The rise of a national consciousness from the freedom struggle, the birth of Kannada nationalism and pride in the history of ancient Karnataka had a direct impact on the literature of this age. Dr. J.F. Fleet wrote the Dynasties of Canarese Districts of the Bombay Presidency in 1894. Under the patronage of Mysore Kingdom, Dr. Louis Rice compiled an exhaustive history of Karnataka in his Epigraphia Carnatica (1886), and Mysore and Coorg from Inscriptions (1909). Dr. Bhandarkar published the Early History of the Dekhan (1884) and Robert Sewell wrote the A Forgotten Empire (1901). Soon after, Alur Venkata Rao consolidated all these histories into Kannada in his book Karnataka Gatavaibhava in 1917.
Belakawadi Srinivasa Iyengar (born as Kuppaswamy Iyengar), who was born in Srigiripura (near Shivagange in Karnataka state), became a court musician during the rule of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in 1916. He authored an important treatise on music in Kannada called Ganamrita in twelve chapters to help students of music understand its theoretical and practical aspects easily. The book was published by his son in 1936. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar, the last king of Mysore, was a noted writer in Kannada and English and wrote the classics Dattatreya - The Way and the Goal and Gita and the Indian culture in English and the Dharma mattu manava in Kannada.
Notes
- ^ Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p(i)
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p23-26
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
- Kamath (2001), p281
- Pranesh (2003), p54
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p25 Cite error: The named reference "kan8" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- Kamath (2001), p230, p250
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p23, p26
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 17, 65–66
- Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 164, 169–170, 192–193
- Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61–64
- Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 17, 61
- Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 163–164
- Sastri (1955), pp. 360–361; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 56; Kamath (2001), p. 115; Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 21
- Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324
- Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 163–164, 166–167
- Nagaraj (2003), pp. 353–354
- Sastri (1955), p. 362; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188
- Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 551–552, pp. 403–404; Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 179–205
- Sastri (1955), p. 362; Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 1181
- E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–44; Sastri (1955), p. 359
- Sastri (1955), p. 360
- Nagaraj (2003), p. 368
- Sharma (1961), p. 514–555
- Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 212
- Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–167, 193–194
- Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 163–164, 166–167
- ^ Ashton (2003), p. 17–18
- ^ Brandon and Banham (1993), p. 115
- Ashton (2003), p. 17
- Karanth in Ashton (2003), p. 20
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 12
- Ashton (2003), p. 21
- Ashton (2003), p. 19
- Ashton (2003), p. 20
- Ashton (2003), p. 21
- Ashton (2003), p. 22
- Brandon and Banham (1993), p.115
- Karanth in Ashton (2003), p. 22–23
- ^ Kamath (2001), p. 227
- Pranesh (2003), p. 6
- Pranesh (2003), p. 7
- Kamath (2001), p. 228
- Kamath (2001), p. 227; Pranesh (2003), p. 11
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p 476
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
- Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 3934
- Sahitya Akademi (1988), p.1149–1150
- Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 3934
- Pranesh (2003), p. 16
- Kamath (2001), p. 228
- Rice (1921), p. 89
- Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89; Pranesh (2003), p. 17
- Kamath (2001), p. 228–229
- Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Shipley (2007), p. 528; Pranesh (2003), p. 20; Kamath (2001), p. 230
- Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Pranesh (2003), p. 21
- Kamath (2001), p. 230; Mukherjee (1999), p. 528
- Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90
- Pranesh (2003), pp. 29–30
- Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 23–24, 62, 64
- ^ Mukherjee (1999), p. 77–78 Cite error: The named reference "historical" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- Pranesh (2003), p. 31
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 213
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
- Pranesh (2003), pp. 31–32
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 62; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 34
- Kamath (2001), p. 230; Mukherjee (1999), p. 135
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), pp. 32–33
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 33
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p 24
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p 59
- Sahitya Akademi (1988), p 1182
- Prasad (1987), p 7
- Prasad (1987), pp 9-10
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p 24
- Prasad (1987), p 16
- Shiva Prakash(1997), p 191
- Prasad (1987), p 15
- Prasad (1987), pp 5-6
- Brandan and Banham (1993), pp. 115–116
- Ashton (2003), pp. 17&ndash23
- Pranesh (2003), p. 37
- Pranesh (2003), p37–38
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 883
- ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1764
- Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201; Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201
- ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- Pranesh (2003), pp. 42–43
- Pranesh (2003), pp. 49–50
- Pranesh (2003), p. 45
- Pranesh (2003), p. 49
- Pranesh (2003), p. 43
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25; Pranesh (2003), p. 49
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p26
- Pranesh (2003), p55
- ^ Pranesh (2003), p55
- Pranesh (2003), p53
- Pranesh (2003), p78
- Pranesh (2003), p80
- Narasimhacharya (2003), p26
- Kamath (2001), p279
- Kamath (2001), p280
- Kamath (2001), p281
- Pranesh (2003), p87
- Pranesh (2003), p87-88
- Pranesh (2003), p81
- Pranesh (2003), p82
- Pranesh (2003), p124, p127
- Narasimhacharya (1988), p26
- Pranesh (2003), pp135-137
- Pranesh (2003), p147
- Kamath (2001), p281
- Pranesh (2003), p205
- Pranesh (2003), p225
References
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