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Kingdom of Mysore/Princely State of Mysoreಮೈಸೂರು ಸಾಮ್ರಾಜ್ಯ
1399–1947
Anthem: Kayou Sri Gowri
Extent of Kingdom of Mysore, 1784 CE
Status	Kingdom (Subordinate to Vijayanagara Empire until 1565). Princely state under the paramountcy of the British Raj after 1799
Capital	Mysore, Srirangapatna
Common languages	Kannada, English
Religion	Hindu
Government	Monarchy until 1799, Principality thereafter
Ruler
• 1399-1423 (first)	Yaduraya
• 1940-1947 (first)	Jaya Chamaraja Wodeyar
History
• Established	1399
• Earliest records	1551
• Disestablished	1947
Preceded by Succeeded by Vijayanagara Empire British India India

The Kingdom of Mysore/State of Mysore (Template:Lang-kn) was both a kingdom (1399-1799 CE) and a princely state (1799-1947 CE) in southern India founded in 1399 by Yaduraya in the region of the modern city of Mysore. The kingdom, which was ruled by the Wodeyar family, served as a feudatory of the Vijayanagara Empire until the empire's decline in 1565. Later, during a period when multiple feudatory rulers claimed independence in southern India, the Kingdom of Mysore consolidated. Under the rule of kings Narasaraja Wodeyar and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed large parts of what is now southern Karnataka and became one of the powerful ruling families in the region.

The kingdom reached the peak of its military power in the late 18th century under de-facto rulers Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. During this time, it came into conflict with the Maratha Empire, the British Empire, the Nizam of Golconda and the rulers of Travancore and Malabar. However, their most well known conflicts were the four Anglo-Mysore wars. Success in the first two Anglo-Mysore wars was followed by failure in the third and fourth. This resulted in the British taking over large parts of the kingdom and ending the period of Mysorean hegemony over the southern Deccan. The British, however, restored the Wodeyars in the smaller princely state of Mysore under the paramountcy of the British Raj. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore was merged with the Union of India.

This period saw the development of the fine arts in southern India in the post Vijayanagara era. The Mysore court, which had such famous artists and musicians as Veena Sheshanna and T.Chowdiah, became a centre of Carnatic music. This period also saw the development of Mysore painting, Indo-European architecture and Kannada literature, including writings on both traditional religious themes and topics such as musical treatises, drama and theatre. Many Mysore kings were acclaimed writers and composers, and both the kings themselves and the classical artists they patronised had a lasting effect on the culture of southern India.

History

Origin

Sources for the history of the kingdom include inscriptions, written records in the Mysore palace and contemporary literary sources in the Kannada language such as the Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijayama and the Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali. The origins of the kingdom, however, remain obscure, notwithstanding legends. The first mention of the Wodeyar family is in 16th century Kannada literature from the time of the Vijayanagara king Achyuta Deva Raya, while the Mysore kingdom's own earliest available inscription is from the rule of the petty chief Timmaraja II in 1551. It is known that the kingdom originated as a small state based in the modern city of Mysore and was founded by two brothers, Yaduraya (also known as Vijaya) and Krishnaraya. The origin of the brothers, though, is still a matter of debate, with some historians claiming a northern origin at Dwaraka, while others claim a local Karnataka origin.

Period of soverignity

The kings who followed Yaduraya ruled as vassals of the Vijayanagara empire until the decline of the latter in 1565 when Raja Wodeyar I asserted his independence and sovereignty. Raja Wodeyar I was followed by Chamaraja Wodeyar V and Raja Wodeyar II. In 1637, the celebrated Narasaraja Wodeyar, known for his valour, wrestling skills and his interest in the fine arts, came to power. A popular account of Narasaraja Wodeyar recounts his victory over a champion wrestler of Tiruchirapalli. He is said to have proceeded incognito to Trichy, defeated the wrestler and left quietly without accepting any gifts from the local ruler, instead leaving a note that read "someone from Mysore has defeated the wrestler".

The diminished Vijayanagara empire that ruled from Vellore had folded completely by this time and the Kingdom of Mysore experienced unprecedented expansion, covering significant areas of what is now southern Karnataka up to the Satyamangalam region bordering modern Tamil Nadu. Even the invading armies of Bijapur, under the leadership of the formidable commander Ranadullah Khan, were repelled by the Mysore armies.

The next famous king of the dynasty was Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, who further expanded the kingdom between Chikkamagaluru in the north and Salem in the south, prompting claims that he was the most important of Mysore's early rulers. Evidence indicates that even the Maratha emperor Shivaji was unwilling to fight a pitched battle with Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar during the 1677 siege of Srirangapatna. His successes against the Marathas of Gingee and against the combined armies of Maratha Sambhaji, Keladi and Golkonda at Banavara in 1682 are considered particularly noteworthy. However, controversy exists regarding his battle against the Moguls. Mogul records indicate that the Mysore kingdom was forced to accept feudatory status following the Mogul invasion of Bangalore territory, but Mysore palace records claim that Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar defeated the Mogul commander Khasim Khan at Bangalore on July 10, 1687. Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar earned the title Apratima Veera for his leadership and administrative skills.

The six decades following the death of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar saw a decline in the kingdom, with local bureaucrats and powerful noblemen (Dalavoy) taking its administration into their hands. Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar was followed by King Narasaraja Wodeyar II, who remained silent throughout his rule. His silence sparked controversy among historians as to whether the king was mute or simply preferred to perform his duties in sign language and written communication. Either way, his silence did not appear to hinder the performance of his duties. He was followed by Krishnaraja Wodeyar I and Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, kings in title only as the administration was taken over by the powerful Kalale brothers, Dalavoy Nanjarajaiah and Sarvadhikari Devarajaiah (prime minister). During the latter part of the rule of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haider Ali, a captain in the army, rose to prominence. His victory against the Marathas at Bangalore in 1758, resulting in the annexation of their territory, made him an iconic figure. In honour of his achievements, the king gave him the title "Nawab Haider Ali Khan Bahadur".

Under Haider and Tipu

Template:Mysore Rulers Infobox Though illiterate, Haider Ali has earned an important place in the history of Karnataka for his fighting skills and administrative acumen. By 1761, the Maratha menace had diminished and by 1763, Haider Ali had captured the Keladi kingdom, defeated the rulers of Bilgi, Baidanur and Gutti and extended the Mysore kingdom up to Dharwad and Bellary. Between 1766 and 1796, Mysore was ruled by Nanjaraja Wodeyar, King Chamaraja Wodeyar VII and King Chamaraja Wodeyar VIII, who, like their immediate predecessors, were kings in title only. An alliance against Mysore had been formed by the Marathas, the Nizam of Golconda and the British, culminating in the first Anglo-Mysore war in 1767. The war was a victory for Haider Ali, who drove the British up to modern Chennai and dictated peace terms. By 1779, Haider Ali had captured parts of modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala in the south, extending the Kingdom's area to about 80,000 mi² (205,000 km²). Haider Ali befriended the French and by 1780 made alliances with the Marathas and the Nizam, only to be betrayed by them in a crucial war in the Tamil region. He died as fighting continued with the British, and was succeeded by his son Tipu Sultan. Tipu continued hostilities against the British in the second Anglo-Mysore war.

Tipu, popularly known as the "Tiger of Mysore", defeated the British in Wandiwash in 1783, but lost some regions in modern coastal Karnataka to them. He also lost the Kittur, Nargund and Badami territories to the Marathas. Tipu's attack on the Kingdom of Travancore, a British ally, resulted in the third Anglo-Mysore war. By 1792, the British besieged Srirangapatna, resulting in Tipu's defeat. Half his territories were seized and two of his sons were taken hostage. A humiliated but indomitable Tipu formed an alliance with the French, the Amir of Afghanistan and the Sultanate of Turkey, while the British were backed by the Marathas and Nizam of Golconda. In 1799, Tipu died fighting in the fourth Anglo-Mysore war, heralding the end of the Kingdom's independence. Modern Indian historians consider Tipu Sultan an inveterate enemy of the British, an able administrator and an innovator.

Princely State

Following Tipu's fall, a part of the kingdom of Mysore was annexed and divided between the Madras Presidency and the British vassals. The remaining territory was formed into a princely state and the five-year-old scion of the Wodeyar family, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, was installed on the throne by the British. Because the ruler was a minor, the administration was run by Purniah, the first Diwan (minister) of Mysore. Mysore paid an annual tribute to the British Raj and a subsidy for maintaining a standing British army at Mysore.

As Diwan, Purniah earned praise from the British for his progressive and innovative administration. In 1811, he retired from service following the 16th birthday of the boy king. In 1831, dissatisfied with the economy of the princely state and citing mal-administration, a situation brought about by corrupt local officials (tashildars), the British took direct control of the princely state. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III spent most of his time encouraging the fine arts, resulting in the development of Carnatic music and Kannada literature. For the next fifty years, Mysore was subject to the rule of commissioners, who were British-appointed officials. In 1876–77, towards the end of the direct British rule, Mysore was struck by a devastating famine with estimated mortality figures which ranged between 700,000 and 1,100,000, or nearly a fifth of the population. Shortly thereafter, Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar, who was educated in the British system, took over the Mysore administration in 1881, following the success of a lobby set up by the Wodeyar dynasty that was in favour of rendition. From then onwards, until Indian independence in 1947, Mysore remained a princely state under the British Raj with the Wodeyars continuing their rule.

After the demise of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV, still a boy of eleven ascended the throne in 1895. His mother Maharani Kemparajammanniyavaru ruled as regent until Krishnaraja Wodeyar took over the reins on 8 February 1902. Under his rule, with Sir M. Vishweshwariah as his Diwan, the maharaja set about transforming Mysore into a progressive and modern state, particularly in industry, education, agriculture and art. Such were the strides that Mysore made that Mahatma Gandhi called the maharaja a Rajarishi (a saintly king). Paul Brunton, the British philosopher and orientalist, John Gunther, the American author, and British statesman Lord Samuel praised the ruler's efforts. Much of the pioneering work in educational infrastructure that took place during this period would serve Karnataka invaluably in the coming decades. The maharaja was an accomplished musician, and like his predecessors, avidly patronised the development of the fine arts. His reign is described by some historians as the "Golden age of Mysore". He was followed by his nephew Jayachamaraja Wodeyar who proved a worthy successor in the years leading up to Indian independence. The rule of the Wodeyar dynasty came to an end when Mysore joined the Indian union following the instrument of accession signed by Jayachamaraja Wodeyar on 9 August 1947.

Administration

There are no records relating to the administration of the Mysore territory during the Vijayanagara Empire's reign (1399–1565). The first sign that the kingdom had established itself in the area was the issuing of gold coins (Kanthirayi phanam) resembling those of the erstwhile Vijayanagara Empire during Narasaraja Wodeyar's rule. The kingdom's financial position improved further during the rule of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, who increased the value of the Treasury to 90,000,000 Pagoda (a unit of currency) and founded the Attara Kacheri, the central secretariat comprising eighteen departments. During Haider Ali's rule, the kingdom was divided into five provinces (Asofis) of unequal size, comprising 171 Paraganas (taluks) in total. When Tipu Sultan became the de facto ruler, the kingdom, which encompassed 160,000 km² (62,000 mi²), was divided into 37 Asofi and a total of 124 taluks (Amil). Each Asofi had a governor, or Asof, and one deputy Asof. The taluk was headed by an Amildar and a Patel was in charge of a group of villages. The central administration comprised six departments headed by ministers, each aided by an advisory council of up to four members.

When the princely state came under direct British rule in 1831, early commissioners Lushington, Briggs and Morrison were followed by Mark Cubbon, who took charge in 1834. He made Bangalore the capital and divided the princely state into four divisions, each under a British superintendent. The state was further divided into 120 taluks with 85 taluk courts, with all lower level administration in the Kannada language. The office of the commissioner had eight departments; revenue, post, police, cavalry, public works, medical, animal husbandry, judiciary and education. The judiciary was hierarchical with the commissioners' court at the apex, followed by the Huzur Adalat, four superintending courts and eight Sadar Munsiff courts at the lowest level. Lewin Bowring became the chief commissioner in 1862 and held the position until 1870. During his tenure, the property "Registration Act", the "Indian Penal code" and "Code of Criminal Procedure" came into effect and the judiciary was separated from the executive branch of the administration.

Rangacharlu, a native of Chennai, was made the Diwan. Under him, the first Representative Assembly of British India, with 144 members, was formed in 1881. He was followed by Sheshadri Iyer in 1883 during whose tenure gold mining at the Kolar Gold Fields began, the Shivanasamudra hydroelectric project was initiated in 1899 (the first such major attempt in India) and electricity and drinking water (the latter through pipes) was supplied to Bangalore. Sheshadri Iyer was followed by P.N. Krishna Murthy, who founded The Secretariat Manual to maintain records and the Co-operative Department in 1905, V.P. Madhava Rao who focussed on conservation of forests and T. Ananda Rao, who finalised the Kannambadi Dam project.

Sir M. Visveshwarayya, popularly known as the "Maker of Modern Mysore", holds a key place in the history of Karnataka. An engineer by education, he became the Diwan in 1909. Under his tenure, membership of the Mysore Legislative Assembly was increased from 18 to 24, and it was given the power to discuss the state budget. The Mysore Economic Conference was expanded into three committees; industry and commerce, education, and agriculture, with publications in English and Kannada. Important projects commissioned during his time included the construction of the Kannambadi Dam, the founding of the Mysore Iron Works at Bhadravathi, founding of the Mysore University in 1916 and the Visveshwarayya College of Engineering in Bangalore.

Sir Mirza Ismail took office as Diwan in 1926 and built on the foundation laid by his predecessor. Amongst his contributions were the expansion of the Bhadravathi Iron Works, the founding of a cement and paper factory in Bhadravathi and the launch of Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. A man with a penchant for gardens, he founded the Brindavan Gardens (Krishnaraja Sagar) and built the Kaveri River high-level canal to irrigate 120,000 acres (490 km) in modern Mandya district.

Economy

Part of a series on the
History of Karnataka
Topics Political history of medieval Karnataka Origin of Karnataka's name
Polities Kadambas and Gangas Chalukya Empire Rashtrakuta Empire Western Chalukya Empire Southern Kalachuri Hoysala Kingdom Vijayanagara Empire Bahmani Sultanate Sultanate of Bijapur Kingdom of Mysore Hyderabad State Nayakas of Keladi Nayakas of Chitradurga Haleri Kingdom Unification of Karnataka
Categories Architecture Forts Economies Societies
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The economy of the kingdom was based on agriculture, due to the majority of its people being villagers. The agrarian population consisted of landlords (gavunda, zamindar, heggadde) who tilled the land by employing a number of landless labourers, usually paying them in grain. Minor cultivators were also willing to hire themselves out as labourers if the need arose. It was due to the availability of these landless labourers that kings and landlords were able to execute major projects such as palaces, temples, mosques, anicuts (dams) and tanks. Because land was abundant and the population relatively sparse, no rent was charged on land ownership. Instead, landowners paid tax for cultivation, which amounted to up to one-half of all harvested produce.

Tipu Sultan is credited to have founded state trading depots in various locations of his kingdom. In addition, he founded depots in foreign locations such as Karachi, Jeddah and Muscat, where Mysore products were sold. During Tipu's rule French technology was used for the first time in carpentry and smithy, Chinese technology was used for sugar production, and technology from Bengal helped improve the sericulture industry. State factories were established in Kanakapura and Taramandelpeth for producing cannons and gunpowder respectively. The state held the monopoly in the production of essentials such as sugar, salt, iron, pepper, cardamom, betel nut, tobacco and sandalwood, as well as the extraction of incense oil from sandalwood and the mining of silver, gold and precious stones. Sandalwood was exported to China and the Persian Gulf countries and sericulture was developed in twenty-one centres within the kingdom.

This system changed under the British, when tax payments were made in cash, and were used for the maintenance of the army, police and other civil and public establishments. A portion of the tax was transferred to England as the "Indian tribute". Unhappy with the loss of their traditional revenue system and the problems they faced, peasants rose in rebellion in many parts of south India. After 1800, the Cornwallis land reforms came into effect. Reade, Munro, Graham and Thackeray were some administrators who improved the economic conditions of the masses. However, the homespun textile industry suffered during British rule, with the exception of the producers of the finest cloth and the coarse cloth which was popular with the rural masses. This was due to the manufacturing mills of Manchester, Liverpool and Scotland being more than a match for the traditional handweaving industry, especially in spinning and weaving.

The economic revolution in England and the tariff policies of the British also caused massive de-industrialization in other sectors throughout India and Mysore. For example, the gunny bag weaving business had been a monopoly of the Goniga people, which they lost when the British began ruling the area. The import of a chemical substitute for saltpetre (potassium nitrate) affected the Uppar community, the traditional makers of saltpetre for use in gunpowder. The import of kerosene affected the Ganiga community which supplied oils. Foreign enamel and crockery industries had an impact on the native pottery business and mill-made blankets replaced the country-made blankets called kambli. This economic fallout led to the formation of community-based social welfare organisations to help those within the community to cope better with their new economic situation, including youth hostels for students seeking education and shelter. However, the British economic policies created a class structure consisting of a newly established middle class comprising various blue and white-collared occupational groups, including agents, brokers, lawyers, teachers, civil servants and physicians. Due to a more flexible caste hierarchy, the middle class contained a heterogeneous mix of people from different castes.

Culture

Religion

The Mysore royalty are generally known to have been Hindu Vaishnavas and the goddess Chamundeshwari, a manifestation of the goddess Durga, was their family deity. The rise of the modern day Mysore city as a centre of south Indian culture has been traced from the period of their sovereignty . Raja Wodeyar I initiated the celebration of the Dasara festival in Mysore, a proud tradition of the erstwhile Vijayanagara royal family. However, the kings were tolerant to other sects and religious faiths. This is evidenced by the high ranking non-Vaishnavites in their courts, including Kalale Nanjarajaiah, a staunch Shaiva, who served under Krishnaraja Wodeyar I, and Haider Ali, a Shia Muslim who rose to power and received much adulation in the court of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II.

Jainism, though in decline during the late medieval period, also enjoyed the patronage of the Mysore kings, who made endowments to the Jain monastic order at Shravanabelagola. This patronage may have been in part due to the friendship between the Mysore royal family and some Jain noble families, including the Urs and Paleygars, and also the fact that some Mysore queens were Jains. Inscriptions from 1634 prove that the Mysore kings made munificent grants for the renovation and restoration of Jain monoliths and temples. Chamaraja Wodeyar IV made a grant of four villages to the pontiff of Shravanabelagola and brought him back from Gerosoppa, where the pontiff had taken refuge to escape the wrath of a local tax collector. In 1611, Raja Wodeyar I began an annuity of 3,000 rupees for the maintenance of the Gomateshwara monolith and 33 other Jain temples in the area. The incumbent ruler of Mysore either performed the Mahamastakabhisheka or presided over it in the years 1672, 1675, 1800, 1925, and 1940. In 1830, King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III donated five villages in and around Shravanabelagola to the Jain monastic order.

The contact between South India and Islam goes back to the 7th century when trade between Hindu kingdoms and Islamic caliphates thrived. These Muslim traders settled on the Malabar coast and married local Hindu women, and their descendants came to be known as Mappillas. By the 14th century, Muslims had become a significant minority in the south, though the advent of Portuguese missionaries checked their growth. Haider Ali, though a devout Muslim, did not allow his faith to interfere with the administration of the predominantly Hindu kingdom. Historians are, however, divided on the intentions of Haider Ali's son, Tipu Sultan. It has been claimed that Tipu raised Hindus to prominent positions in his administration, made generous grants to Hindu temples and brahmins, and generally respected other faiths, and that any religious conversions that Tipu undertook were as punishment to those who rebelled against his authority. However, this has been countered by other historians who claim that Tipu Sultan treated the non-Muslims of Mysore far better than those of the Malabar, Raichur and Kodagu regions. They opine that Tipu was responsible for mass conversions of Christians and Hindus in these regions, either by giving them tax incentives and revenue benefits or by force.

The spread of Christianity in South India has been traced back to the arrival of the Portuguese on the west coast. It was through the patronage of these devout Roman Catholics that chaplains and missionaries went to various regions to encourage people to join the Christian faith. Some evidence, however, suggests that not all of these conversions were peaceful and that the Portuguese soldiers may also have undertaken coercive methods to achieve their ends. Saint Francis Xavier, perhaps the most respected Christian saint in India, gave a new boost to the growth of Christianity. He travelled from village to village, healing the sick, burying the dead and doing what he could to reduce the miseries of the poor and underprivileged. The institutions established in his name are a testimony to his popularity and achievements.

Lo Cinnami, a Jesuit from Goa, was the founder of the Mysore mission. The Portuguese patronage called Padraodo was suppressed by the Propaganda of the more hostile European powers, including the English, the French, the Dutch and the Danes. The Propaganda sent out Capuchins, the Discalced Carmelites, the Theatines and the missionaries of the Society of Paris. The foundation stone of the Protestant church in India was laid by the Danish settlement at Tranquebar. Ziegenbalg and Plutschan were the first missionaries to arrive in 1709, under the patronage of King Frederick IV of Denmark. The best known Lutheran missionary connected with the Danish royal mission was Christian Frederick Schwartz. After his death, the Lutheran church declined and was absorbed by the Anglican church, whose reach became significant after the rise of British power in India in the 19th century.

Society

Prior to the 18th century, the society of the kingdom followed age-old and deeply established norms of social interaction between people. Accounts by contemporaneous travellers indicate the widespread practice of the Hindu caste system and of animal sacrifices during the Mahanavami nine day celebrations. Later, fundamental changes occurred due to the struggle between native and foreign powers. Though wars between the Hindu kingdoms and the Sultanates continued, the battles between native rulers (including Muslims) and the newly arrived British, took centre stage. The spread of English education, the introduction of the printing press and the criticism of the prevailing social system by Christian missionaries helped make the society more flexible. The rise of modern nationalism throughout India also had its impact on Mysore.

With the advent of British power, English education gained prominence in addition to traditional education in local languages. These changes were orchestrated by Lord Elphinstone, the governor of the Madras Presidency. His plan became the constitution of the central collegiate institution or University Board in 1841. Accordingly, a high school department of the university was established. For imparting education in the interior regions, schools were raised in principal towns which eventually were elevated to college level, with each college becoming central to many zilla schools (local schools). The earliest English-medium schools appeared in 1833 in Mysore and spread across the region. In 1858, the department of education was founded in Mysore and by 1881, there were an estimated 2,087 English medium schools in the state of Mysore. Higher education became available with the formation of Bangalore Central College in Bangalore (1870), Maharaja's college (1879), Maharani's college (1901) and the Mysore University (1916) in Mysore and the St. Agnes college in Mangalore (1921).

Social reforms aimed at removing practices such as sati and at social discrimination based upon untouchability, as well as demands for the emancipation of the lower classes, swept across India and influenced Mysore territory. In 1894, the kingdom passed laws to abolish the marriage of girls below the age of eight. Remarriage of widowed women and marriage of destitute women was encouraged, and in 1923, women were granted the permission to exercise their franchise in elections. There were, however, uprisings against British authority in the Mysore territory, notably the Kodagu uprising in 1835 (after the British dethroned the local ruler Chikkaviraraja) and the Kanara uprising of 1837. The era of printing heralded by Christian missionaries resulted in the founding of printing presses across the kingdom. The publication of ancient and contemporary Kannada books (such as the Pampa Bharata and the Jaimini Bharata), a Kannada-language Bible, a bilingual dictionary and a Kannada newspaper (called Kannada Samachara) began in the early 19th century. Aluru Venkata Rao published a consolidated Kannada history glorifying the achievements of Kannadigas in his book Karnataka Gatha Vaibhava.

Native Yakshagana as well as classical English and Sanskrit plays influenced the Kannada stage and produced famous dramatists like Gubbi Veeranna. The public began to enjoy Carnatic music through its broadcast via public address systems set up on the palace grounds. Mysore paintings, which were inspired by the Bengal Renaissance, were created by artists such as Sundarayya, Ala Singarayya, and B. Venkatappa.

Literature

The era of the Kingdom of Mysore is considered an important age of Kannada literature, especially in the field of musical treatises, compositions and dramas. Not only was the Mysore court adorned by famous Brahmin and Virashaiva writers and composers, but the kings themselves were accomplished in the fine arts and made important contributions. Though traditional literature in philosophy and religion was written, a wave of writings in such new genres as chronicles (vamshavali), biographies, histories, encyclopedias, novels, dramas, and treatises on music and musical compositions became popular. A unique and native form of poetic literature with dramatic representation called Yakshagana gained popularity in the 18th century. Another remarkable development of the later period was the influence of English literature and classical Sanskrit literature on Kannada literature.

Govinda Vaidya, a native of Srirangapatna, wrote a eulogy of his patron King Narasaraja Wodeyar called Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijayam. Written in sangatya metre (a composition meant to be rendered to the accompaniment of a musical instrument) and melodious Kannada, the book describes the lifestyle of the kingdom, the king's court, the popular music and the types of musical compositions of the age in twenty-six chapters (sandhis). King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the earliest composer of the dynasty, received the honorific Sahitya Vidyanikasha Prastharam for his interest in the fine arts. To him is ascribed the famous treatise on music in Kannada called Geetha Gopala. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Sanskrit writing Geetha Govinda, it had an originality of its own and was written in saptapadi metre (seven beats per line). This is the first writing that propagates the Vaishnava faith in the Kannada language. Famous names in Kannada literature during the 17th century include the brahmin poet Lakshmisa, the Jain grammarian Bhattakalanka and the Virashaiva poet Sarvajna. Female poets also played a role in the development of Kannada literature, with Cheluvambe (the queen of Krishnaraja Wodeyar I), Haridasa Helavanakatte Giriyamma, Sri Rangamma (1685) and Sanchi Honnamma (author of Hadibadeya Dharma) writing notable Kannada-language works.

The rule of King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II is considered the age of Yakshagana compositions. A polyglot, he authored fourteen Yakshaganas in various languages though all are written in Kannada script. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a prolific writer in Kannada for which he was called Abhinava Bhoja. Over forty writings are attributed to him of which a poetical romance called Saugandika Parinaya written in two versions, a sangatya and a drama, are popular. In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of Sugandharaya, the king of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. He has written three landmark musical treatises called Sri Tatwanidhi (with iconography), Swara Chudamani and Sara Sangraha Bharata.

Basavappa Shastry, a native of Mysore and a luminary in the court of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, is known as Kannada Nataka Pitamaha ("the father of Kannada theatre"). Shastri composed the first state anthem of the Mysore Kingdom called Kayou Sri Gowri for the coronation of Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. Because of his proficiency in Kannada and Sanskrit and his knowledge of the fine arts, he was appointed the head of Chamaraja Nataka Sabha (a drama consortium) in 1882. Basavappa Shastry authored dramas in Kannada and translated William Shakespeare's "Othello" to Shurasena Charite with the help of D.C. Subba Rao. Among his translations from Sanskrit to Kannada are Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali.

Music

Though most Mysore kings and rulers patronised music and many were noted musicians themselves, the golden age of Carnatic music in the Kingdom started from the reign of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. In particular, the reign of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV is considered a high point. During this time Mysore developed a distinct school of music which gave importance to raga and bhava and became a seat of Carnatic music.

Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a musician, musicologist and composer of merit. His compositions bear the mudra (nom de plume) '"Chamundi'" or '"Chamundeshwari'", the name of the Wodeyar family deity. He composed javali (light lyrics) and devotional songs based on a philosophical theme in the Kannada language under the title Anubhava pancharatna. Javali in Carnatic music have their roots in Mysore and are first mentioned in the king's writings as javadi. Veena Sheshanna, considered one of the greatest exponents of the veena, was born in Mysore in 1852. He was appointed court musician during the rule of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX. His achievements in classical music won Mysore a premier place in the art of instrumental Carnatic music and he was given the title "Vainika Shikhamani" by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV.

Mysore Vasudevacharya was a musician and composer born on 28 May 1865 in Mysore. He holds the unique distinction of being patronised by four generations of Mysore kings and rulers and for being court musician to three of them. A master of both Carnatic and Hindustani raga, he delivered the opening Sanskrit shloka at the Indian National Congress convention at Belagavi in 1924, represented Mysore in the "Akhila Bharateeya Sangeeta Parishat" concert held in Gwalior and earned the titles "Sangeeta Shastra Ratna" ("gem of music") and "Sangeeta Shastra Visharada". Credited to him are compositions in Sanskrit and Telugu under the pen name Vasudeva and two books in Kannada.

H.L. Muthiah Bhagavatar was a famous musician and composer of this period. A native of Tirunelveli (in modern Tamil Nadu) and a student of Samabasiva Iyer in Tiruvayyar, he was appointed as a court musician at Mysore in 1927 and was honoured with the title "Gayaka Shikamani" by his patron Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Four hundred compositions in Sanskrit, Kannada, Telugu and Tamil under the pen name "Harikesha" are credited to him. In addition, he wrote an important treatise on music in Tamil called "Sangeeta Kalpadrumam" and a biography of Tyagaraja, "Srimat Tyagaraja Vijaya", in Sanskrit. He is considered one of the most important composers of the post-Tyagaraja period.

T. Chowdiah, a noted personality in the field of Carnatic music, was born on 1 January 1894 in Tirumakudalu Narasipura, near Mysore. As a student of the well-known musician Bidaram Krishnappa, Chowdiah emerged as an accomplished violinist. The ambidextrous Chowdiah is known to have played music with all the famous Carnatic musicians of his day. In 1939, he was appointed court musician by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV and received such titles as "Sangeeta Ratna" and "Sangeeta Kalanidhi". He is credited with many compositions in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit under the pen name "Trimakuta".

Architecture

The architecture of the Kingdom of Mysore is most notably manifested in palaces and courtly buildings built in various styles and temples built in the Dravidian style. When in power, Tipu Sultan constructed a palace and a mosque in Srirangapatna, his capital. However, it is the city of Mysore that is best known for its royal palaces, earning it the nickname "City of Palaces". The city's main palace, the Mysore Palace, was designed by the English architect Henry Irwin in 1897, though there is evidence that a royal structure had existed on the same site a few centuries earlier. The palace's exterior is Indo-Saracenic in style but the wealth of detail inside is distinctly Hoysala in nature. Domes, arches, colonnades and carved pillars, as well as its size, add to this palace's notability. The octagonal Kalyana mantapa (Marriage Hall) on the ground floor has 26 canvas paintings on its walls depicting the Dasara procession. On the first floor, a marble staircase leads to a grand colonnaded Durbar hall containing famous paintings, including one of the Hindu god Vishnu on the ceiling. The opulent Amba Vilas hall, with its carved teakwood ceiling, white marble floors, semi-precious inlay work in the Agra style, silver door with a depiction of the dashavatara and dikpalas (guardians), teak doors inlayed with ivory, Belgian stained glass, cast iron pillars from Glasgow, etched glass windows and chandeliers are worthy of mention.

The Lalitha Mahal Palace was built in 1921 by E.W. Fritchley under the commission of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. The architectural style is called "Renaissance" and exhibits concepts from English manor houses and Italian palazzos. The central dome is believed to be modelled on St. Paul's Cathedral in London. Other important features are the Italian marble staircase, the polished wooden flooring in the banquet and dance halls, and the Belgian cut glass lamps. The Jaganmohan Palace was built mostly in the Hindu style in the middle of the 19th century by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. Noted for its ornamental pavilion (called the Wedding Pavilion), this palace was the marriage site of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. The palace has an elegant façade with three large entrances. The moulded and bracketed entablature supports miniature elaborate towers that look like temples and serve both as gables and as crest niches. The palace has spacious balconies, stained glass windows, shutters and ventilators.

The Jayalakshmi Vilas Palace was built by maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV in 1905 for the eldest daughter of Maharaja Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, Kumari Jayalakshmammanni. Built in the Corinthian style, it consists of a three-winged building with two Corinthian and Ionic columns, regal pediments on the first floor and above the north and east porches, plastered windows, and rich masonry and woodwork. The sculptures of the Hindu goddess Lakshmi on the north side and of the goddess Bhuvaneshwari on the south side are particularly notable. The Karanji Vilas mansion, an Indo-Greek style building, was commissioned in 1902 and completed in 1932. It was built for the second princess, Kumari Krishnarajammanni, and overlooks the Karanji Lake. The Cheluvamba Mansion was built for her sister, the youngest princess, in 1910. An imposing yet balanced structure, its main façade contains twin towers flanking semi-circular columned verandas on the ground and first floors. The maharaja's summer palace, built in 1880, is called the Lokaranjan Mahal, and initially served as a school for royalty. The Rajendra Vilas Palace, built in the Indo-British style atop the Chamundi Hill, was commissioned in 1922 and completed in 1938 by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar IV. Other royal mansions built by the Mysore rulers were the Chittaranjan Mahal in Mysore and the Bangalore Palace in Bangalore, a structure built on the lines of England's Windsor Castle.

Famous among the kingdom's temples is the Chamundeshwari Temple atop the Chamundi Hill. The earliest structure here was consecrated in the 12th century and was later patronised by the Mysore rulers. Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III added a Dravidian-style gopuram in 1827. The temple has silver-plated doors with images of deities. Other images include those of the Hindu god Ganesha and of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III with his three queens. Surrounding the main palace in Mysore and inside the fort are five temples, built in various periods. The Prasanna Krishnaswamy Temple was commissioned in 1829 by Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. It contains sculpted images of Hindu deities, a statue of the king and his queens and a shrine for Sage Atri, with whom the Wodeyar dynasty have a legendary association. The Lakshmiramana Swamy Temple, the oldest of the fort temples, existed prior to 1499. Legend has it that King Raja Wodeyar survived after having been poisoned at the temple because of his faith in Vishnu, the temple's deity. The Trinesvara Swamy Temple, built for the three-eyed god Shiva, has existed since the time of King Raja Wodeyar and was renovated by successive kings.

The Shweta Varaha Swamy Temple is unique in that it contains many aspects of Hoysala architecture. Built by Purniah, the Diwan of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, it is believed to contain structures taken from a then-existing Hoysala temple. The Prasanna Venkataramana Swami Temple, a Vishnu temple containing 12 murals of the Wodeyar rulers, was built by Subbaraya Dasa, an officer of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III, in 1836. Tipu Sultan built the Dariya Daulat Palace in the Dariya Daulat Bhag (literally the "garden of the wealth of the sea") in 1784. Built in the Indo-Saracenic style, the palace is known for its intricate woodwork and paintings. The west wall of the palace is covered with murals depicting Tipu Sultan's victory over Colonel Baillie's army at Pollilur, near Kanchipuram in 1780. One mural shows Tipu enjoying the fragrance of a bouquet of flowers while the battle is in progress. In that painting, the French soldiers' moustaches distinguish them from the cleanshaven British soldiers. The Masjid-e-Ala or Jama Masjid was built by Tipu Sultan in 1784 and has minarets mounted on a tall platform. It has two storeys and is octagonal in shape with pigeonholes surmounted by domes. The walls and ceilings are decorated with Persian scriptures in fine calligraphy.

See also

• List of Indian Princely States

Notes

1. ^ Kamath (2001), p227
2. Stein (1989), p82
3. Kamath (2001), p226
4. Rice B.L. (1897), p361
5. Pranesh (2003), pp2-3
6. Wilks and Aiyangar in Aiyangar (2004), p275-276
7. Shama Rao in Kamath (2001), p227
8. Pranesh (2003), p10
9. Kamath (2001), p228
10. Sethu Madhava Rao in Kamath (2001), p229
11. Pranesh (2003), p19
12. Pranesh (2003), p19
13. Pranesh (2003), p36-37
14. Kamath (2001), p230
15. Pranesh (2003), p44
16. Kamath (2001), p230
17. ^ Kamath (2001), p230
18. Shama Rao in Kamath (2001), p233
19. A military genius and a man of vigour, valour and resourcefulness (Chopra et al. 2003, p76)
20. ^ Kamath (2001), p232
21. Chopra et al. (2003), p73
22. "By temperament and training, Tipu was a great military leader and conqueror" (Chopra et al. 2003, p77
23. Kamath (2001), p233
24. Chopra et. al (2003), pp81-82
25. Kamath (2001), p234
26. Kamath (2001), p249
27. A wise and benevolent promoter of industry and opulence- Gen Wellesley in Kamath (2001), p249
28. ^ Kamath (2001), p250
29. Lewis Rice, B. 1881. Report on the Mysore census. Bangalore: Mysore Government Press. p3
30. Kamath (2001), pp250-253
31. Rama Jois, M. 1984. Legal and constitutional history of India ancient legal, judicial and constitutional system. Delhi: Universal Law Pub. Co. p597
32. Puttaswamaiah, K. 1980. Economic development of Karnataka a treatise in continuity and change. New Delhi: Oxford & IBH. p3
33. "The Mysore duo Krishnaraja Wodeya IV & M. Visvesvaraya". India Today. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
34. Pranesh (2003), p162
35. "[Group portrait of] the Maharaja [of Mysore] & his brothers and sisters". British Library. Retrieved 2007-10-23.
36. Kamath (2001), p228
37. Kamath (2001), pp-228-229
38. Kamath (2001), p233
39. Kamath (2001), p234
40. Kamath (2001), p235
41. ^ Kamath (2001), p251
42. ^ Kamath (2001), p252
43. Kamath (2001), p254
44. ^ Kamath (2001), p254-255
45. ^ Kamath (2001), p257
46. Kamath (2001), p259
47. ^ Kamath (2001), p258
48. Kamath (2001), p260
49. Sastri (1955), p297
50. ^ Chopra et al. (2003), p123
51. M.H.Gopal in Kamath 2001, p235
52. Kamath (2001), p235-236
53. Kamath (2001), p236-237
54. Chopra et al. (2003), p124
55. Chopra et al. (2003), p129
56. Chopra et al. (2003), p130
57. Kamath (2001), p286
58. Chopra et. al (2003), p132
59. Kamath (2001), p287
60. Kamath (2001), pp288-289
61. Chopra et al. (2003), p134
62. King Raja Wodeyar was a devotee of Vishnu (Pranesh 2003, p5)
63. King Chamaraja Wodeyar VI wrote his version of the Valmiki Ramayana but protected all faiths of Hinduism and Jainism (Pranesh 2003, p6)
64. King Chikkadevaraja Wodeyar was a Sri Vaishnava and composed poems in praise of Cheluvanarayana Swamy, the deity of temple at Melkote (Kamath 2001, p229-230)
65. King Narasaraja Wodeyar II is famous for his Yakshagana compositions (Pranesh 2003, p37)
66. Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a devotee of Chamundeshwari (Pranesh 2003, p54)
67. Pranesh (2003), p17
68. Pranesh (2003), p4
69. Pranesh (2003), p45
70. Pranesh (2003), p44
71. Kamath (2001), p229-230
72. Jain and Jain (1953), p56
73. Jain and Jain (1953), p58
74. ^ Sastri (1955), p396
75. Mohibul Hassan in Chopra et al. , 2003, p82, part III
76. Chopra et. al (2003), p82
77. Kamath (2001), p237
78. Chopra et al. (2001), p187
79. Josephus Wicki in Documenta Indica (1540–49) and Zinadim in Historia dos Portuguese no Malabar – Chopra et al. (2003), p187
80. Chopra et al. (2003), p188
81. Chopra et al. (2003), p190
82. Chopra et al. (2003), p191
83. Chopra et al. (2003), p192
84. Sastri (1955), p394
85. Kamath (2001), p233
86. Kamath (2001), p278
87. Chopra et al. (2003), p185
88. Chopra et al. (2003), p186
89. Kamath (2003), p278-279
90. Chopra et al. (2003), p196-197, p202
91. Kamath (2003), p284
92. Kamath (2001), p275
93. Kamath (2003), pp279-280
94. Kamath (2001), p281
95. Kamath (2003), p282
96. Pranesh (2003), p163
97. ^ Kamath (2003), p283
98. Kamath (2001), p229-230
99. Narasimhacharya (1988), p23-27
100. Mukherjee (1999), p78; Narasimhacharya (1988), p23, p26; Kamath (2001), p229-230; Pranesh (2003), preface chapter p(i)
101. Narasimhacharya (1988), p23-26
102. Narasimhacharya (1988), p25
103. Kamath (2001), p281
104. Kamath (2001), p280
105. Mukherjee (1999), p119; Kamath (2001), p227; Pranesh (2003), p11
106. Pranesh (2003), p20
107. Mukherjee (1999), p78; Pranesh (2003), p21
108. Mukherjee (1999), p143, 354, 133, 135; Narasimhacharya (1988), p24-25; Pranesh (2003), pp33-34
109. ^ Pranesh (2003), p37-38 Cite error: The named reference "wod" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
110. Pranesh (2003), p53
111. Narasimhacharya (1988), p26
112. Pranesh (2003), p55
113. Pranesh (2003), p55
114. Pranesh (2003), p81
115. Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077; Pranesh (2003), p82
116. Pranesh (2003), pxiii in author's note
117. Kamath (2001), p282
118. Pranesh (2003), p54
119. Pranesh (2003), p108
120. Pranesh (2003), p110-111
121. Satish Kamat. "The final adjustment". Metro Plus Bangalore. The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
122. Pranesh (2003), p135
123. Pranesh (2003), p140, p147
124. Pranesh (2003), p140
125. Pranesh (2003), p167
126. Pranesh (2003), p180
127. Pranesh (2003), p170
128. Pranesh (2003), p214
129. Pranesh (2003), p216
130. ^ Raman (1994), p82
131. ^ Bradnock (2000), p315
132. ^ Raman (1994), pp87-88
133. ^ "Mysore, City of Palaces". Jagan Mohan Palace. 1998-00 OurKarnataka.Com,Inc. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
134. Priyanka Haldipur. "Of monumental value". Jayalakshmi Vilas Mansion. Deccan Herald. Retrieved 2007-09-27.
135. Bradnock (2000), p294
136. Raman (1994), p85
137. ^ Raman (1996), p83
138. Raman (1994), p106
139. "Mysore, City of Palaces". Masjid-e-Ala Srirangapatna. Mysore.org.uk. Retrieved 2007-09-27.

References

v t e State of Karnataka
Capital: Bengaluru
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