Misplaced Pages

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Dineshkannambadi (talk | contribs) at 00:51, 16 December 2008 (→Developments in early 20th century: will continue in a minute). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Kannada literature is a body of literature of Kannada, a Dravidian language spoken mainly in the Indian state of Karnataka and written in the Kannada script. Its literary characteristics during the period 1600 CE through 1900 CE are categorised as Veerashaiva and Vaishnava—symbolizing the two dominant faiths that both gave form to and fostered it until the advent of the modern era. Some Jain writings are available from this period. Writings in secular genres was also popular. During this period, organised Kannada literature flourished in particular in the court of Wodeyar kings of Mysore, and for a short while in that of the the Nayakas of Keladi.

The Kingdom of Mysore was a founded in 1399 CE by Yaduraya in the region of the modern city of Mysore. The Keladi feudatory was founded by Choudappa in 1499 CE. Both served as vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire until the empire's decline in 1565. Later, during a period when multiple feudatory rulers claimed independence in southern India, they consolidated into independent states. Under the rule of Mysore kings Narasaraja Wodeyar and Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, the kingdom annexed significant areas of what is now southern Karnataka and became one of the powerful ruling families in the region. The Keladi territories, which at its peak comprised the coastal and Malnad ("hill") regions of modern Karnataka merged into the Kingdom of Mysore in 1763. The Kingdom of Mysore reached the peak of its military power in the late 18th century under rulers Haider Ali and his son Tipu Sultan. The British took control of the kingdom in 1799 and ended a period of Mysorean hegemony over the southern Deccan. They however restored the Wodeyars in the smaller princely state of Mysore under the paramountcy of the British Raj. The Wodeyars continued to rule the state until Indian independence in 1947, when Mysore was merged with the Union of India.

During an age of revival and innovation, the Mysore court poets attempted to rejuvenate the classical form of writing using the champu metre (a composition in prose-verse). Yakshagana, a native form of dramatic literature meant for a rustic audience consolidated in the coastal regions in the 16th century and gained popularity thereafter. The devotional literature of the itinerant Haridasas, popular in the 15th and 16th century, saw a flourish in the 18th and 19th centuries, this time centred on the holy town of Mantralayam and surrounding regions in the Raichur district. Their compositions inspired two didactic arts, the Harikatha and the Shivakatha. The 19th century brought the influence of English literature and classical Sanskrit literature, resulting in the birth of modern prose, prose narrative and theatrical literature.

Not only were the court poets prolific writers, some rulers of the Mysore royal family were themselves men of letter. Among them, King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and IV are best-known. Wandering mendicant-poets wrote compositions meant for the country folk and popularised native metres. A wide range of metres, native and Sanskritic, were popular including, dvipadi (2-line verse), tripadi (3-line verse), choupadi (4-line verse) shatpadi (6-line verse), saptapadi (7-line verse), vachana (free verse), sangatya (verses rendered to the accompaniment of an instrument) and gadya (prose) metres.

Overview

Literature prior to 16th century

By the mid-16th century, Kannada literature had been influenced by three important socio-religious developments: Jainism (9th–12th centuries),Veerashaivism (lit, "Heroic Shaivism", 12th century onward), and Vaishnavism (14th century onward). In addition, writings on secular subjects remained popular throughout this period.

Jain works were written in the classical champu metre and were centred on the lives of Tirthankars (saints), princes and personages associated with the Jainism. The early Veerashaiva literature (1150–1200 CE), comprising pithy poems called Vachanas (lit, "utterance", "saying" or "sentence") propagated devotion to the god Shiva and were written in the native tripadi (three-line verse), hadugabba (song-poem) and free verse metres. From the 13th century, Veerashaiva writers made the saints of the 12th century the protagonists of their writings and established native metres such as the ragale (lyrical compositions in blank verse), the shatpadi (six-line verse), and the sangatya, a composition meant to be sung to the accompaniment of a musical instrument.

The Vaishnava writers of the 15th and early 16th century comprised of the Brahmin commentators who wrote under royal patronage, and the itinerant Haridasas, saint-poets who spread the philosophy of Madhvacharya using simple Kannada in the form of melodious songs. The Haridasa poets used genres such as the Kirthane (compositions based on rhythm and melody), the Suladi (rhythm-based) and the Ugabhoga (melody-based). Overall, Kannada writings had changed from marga ("formal") to desi ("vernacular") and become more accessible to the common man.

Contemporary developments

Court and monastic literature

After the decline of the Vijayanagara empire, the centres of Kannada literary production shifted to the courts of the emerging independent states, the Kingdom of Mysore and the Kingdom of Keladi. The Kingdom of Keladi was centred at Keladi and near by Ikkeri, and their domains included the coastal and hill (Malnad) regions of modern Karnataka. Important Veerashaiva doctrines were the contribution of writers in the Keladi court. The Keladi territories and those of smaller principalities called Palyagars ("chieftain") were eventually absorbed into the Kingdom of Mysore by 1763. The unique aspect of the Mysore court was the presence of numerous multi-lingual writers, some of who were Veerashaivas. They were often adept in Telugu and Sanskrit, in addition to Kannada. The Veerashaiva monasteries that had sprung up in various regions including Mysore, Tumkur, Chitradurga and Bangalore sought to spread their influence beyond the Kannada speaking borders. Sadakshara Deva, a Veerashaiva writer, tried to rejuvenate the classical champu style of writings. The Srivaishnava writers, who were dominant in the Mysore court, maintained a literary style that was conventional and conservative while proliferating lore and legend. A spurt in Vaishnava writings resulted in renderings of the epics, the Mahabharata, the Bhagavata and no less then three versions of the Ramayana. Prior to the 17th century, historical information about royal genealogies and achievements had been recorded mostly on versified inscriptions. Beginning with the 17th century, with the consolidation of the feudatory of Mysore into an independent kingdom, books belonging to the genre of historicals and biographies became popular. A number of such writings were penned by the court poets in the 17th and early 18th centuries, most notably, Tirumalarya and Chikkupdhyaya. Some of these writings would later serve as valuable research material for modern day historians.

Folk and didactic literature

Yakshagana theatre

In the country side, Yakshagana (lit, "Songs of the demi-gods") a popular form of rustic literature, a type of "folk-dance-drama" of southern India, the best-known of which is from the South Kanara region of Karnataka gained popularity. There are a variety of dance-dramas collectively termed as Yakshagana; the "Yakshagana Tenkutittu" (lit, "Yakshagana of the southern style") and simply "Yakshagana", popular primarily in the Mangalore region, and the "Yakshagana Badagatittu Bayalaata" (lit, "Yakshagana of northern style performed outdoors"), popular in Udupi and surrounding regions. Other art forms also grouped under this category are the "Nagamandalam", a dance meant to appease Naga, the Hindu snake god, and a variety of bhuta ("spirit") dances.

According to noted modern Kannada writer Shivarama Karanth, the region between Udupi and Ikkeri could be the region where Kannada Yakshanagas originated. However, He suggested that the earliest forms of dance-drama, called the "Gandharagrama", are mentioned in the writing Narada Siska dated to 600–200 BCE. This primitive form developed into "Ekkalagana" plays which finds mention in 12th century Kannada writings Mallinathapurana (c. 1105, Nagachandra) and the Chandraprabha Purana (c. 1189, Aggala). According to M.M. Bhat, a scholar from the Institute of traditional cultures, Chattana, a composition native to Kannada and mentioned in Kavirajamarga (c. 850) could be considered the earliest known forerunners of the Kannada Yakshaganas. An epigraph of c. 1565 from Bellary, describes a grant to a troupe of Tala-Maddale performers. The earliest available manuscripts containing Yakshagana plays are Virata Parva (c. 1565) by Vishnu of Brahmavara town in South Kanara, and Sugriva Vijaya (mid-16th century) by Kandukuru Rudrakavi. The earliest available edition of Yakshagana plays, Sabhaparva, is dated to c. 1621.

Haridasa literature

Haridasa Sahitya (lit, "literature"), which had seen its classical days in the 15th and 16th centuries under the guidance of such stalwart saint-poets as Purandara Dasa and Kanaka Dasa saw a revival in the 18th and 19th centuries. Vijaya Dasa and Jagannatha Dasa are the most prominent among a long list of saint-poets belonging to this cadre. Their devotional songs are classified into the following categories: "biographical, socio-religious, ethical and ritualistic, didactic and philosophical, meditative, narrative and eulogistic and miscellaneous". Their contribution to Hindu mysticism and the Bhakti literature is similar to the contributions of the Azhvars and Nayanmars of modern Tamil Nadu and that of the devotional saint-poets of Maharashtra and Gujarat. A byproduct of the Haridasa devotional movement, popular among urban and country folk alike are the Kannada language Harikatha (lit, "Stories of Hari")and the Shivakatha (lit, "Stories of Shiva"). The Harikatha evolved from the Kirthane compositions of the Haridasas of Karnataka. It comprises of music, dialogue, monologue and a lively prose narration of the virtues of the Hindu god Vishnu or one of his famous devotees. The narration of the didactic story is by a Bhagavata (also called Harikatha Vidwan, lit, "Expert at Harikatha"), a scholar proficient in the Vaishnava epics (the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu on earth). The Shivakathas are similar in origin and in purpose, except, the central character is called a Kirthankar, one who is proficient in the Veerashaiva classics and the deeds (Shiva leela) of the god Shiva on earth. Though the "Harikatha" is a story of the god Vishnu, the inclusion of a story from the Shaiva classics is not unusual. Similarly, a Shivakatha could include a story from the Vaishnava epics.

Veerashaiva canon

After a break of more than three centuries, the Vachana poetic tradition began to resurface. Though some poets, such as Siddhalingayati (1540), Swatantra Siddhalingeswara (1565), Ganalingideva (1560), Shanmukha Swamy (1700), Kadasiddheswara (1725) and Kadakolu Madivallappa (1780) attempted to re-popularise the tradition with noteworthy poems, they lacked the mastery of the 12th century poets. The greatest of the later day Vachanakaras ("Vachana poets") were undoubtedly the wandering poets, Sarvajna and Sisunala Sherif (late 18th century). Sarvajna is known to have lived sometime between mid-16th century and the late 17th century. Though the Vachana poetic tradition had come to temporary halt, the creation of anthologies and commentaries based on the earlier Vachana canon, depicting the 12th century Veerashaiva saints as its protagonists, became popular. Among well-known 16th century anthologists were Channaveeracharya (16th century), Singalada Siddhabasava (c. 1600) who interpretted the Vachanas from a purely philosophical and meta-physical context. In the Keladi court, notable Veerashaiva works on doctrine, such as Virasaivadharma siromani ("Crest jewel of the moral order of the Veerashaivas") and Virasaivananda chandrike ("Moonlight to delight the Veerashaivas") were written. A new genre of mystic literature, a synthesis of the Veerashaiva doctrine and the Advaitha philosophy, called the Kaivalya literature, consolidated 16th century onwards. While the most famous writings are ascribed to Nijaguna Shivayogi (c. 1500), later day writers such as Mahalingaranga (Anubhavamrita in shatpadi metre, c. 1675) and Chidanandavadhuta (Jnana Sindhu) are notable.

Modern literature

The birth of a modern expression in the Kannada language can be traced to the early the 19th century, a transition that in later decades included the influence of English literature on local traditions. The earliest examples of modern literature came in the form of prose writings, either inspired by or renderings of Sanskrit classics, in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. The king himself was an accomplished Kannada writer to whom is ascribed the prose romance Saugandhika Parinaya. Under the patronage of the king, Kempu Narayana wrote Mudramanjusha ("The Seal Casket", 1823), a historical novel and an innovative version of the Sanskrit original, Mudrarakshasa by Vishaka Datta. This work is considered the trailblazer in modern Kannada prose.

English language education, the role of missionaries, their translation of the Bible into Kannada in 1820, the arrival of the printing press, publication of newspapers and periodicals, the earliest Kannada-English and English-Kannada dictionaries helped to modernise Kannada prose. Development of prose narrative came by way of translations of Christian classics, such as Yatrikana Sanchara ("The Pilgrims Progress", 1847). Dramatic literature got its impetus from translations of Sanskrit and English classics (Shakuntala in 1869; Macbeth, King Lear and Romeo and Juliet). Modern fiction novel, with a reformist outlook, was born in 1892. This was followed by the earliest social plays with similar themes, a trend that has already set roots in the modern literatures of Marathi and Bengali languages. Muddanna (or Nandalike Lakshminarayana) stands out as an unique writer, whose language is Old-Kannada but his sensibilities are modern. His two important works were Adbhuta Ramayana (1895) and Ramaswamedham (1898). The latter work is historically important to prose development – ancient epic is handled from a modern viewpoint. The narrator is the author and the listener, his wife. Muddanna's declaration Padyam Vadhyam, Gadyam Hridyam (lit, "Poetry deserves killing whereas prose reaches the heart") summarises the trends in Kannada literature in the late 19th century.

17th century writings

Template:Kannada poets in 17th century

Early literary culture

Raja Wodeyar (1578–1617) became the first king of Mysore, having ousted the Vijayanagara governor at Srirangapatna. However, the fledgling kingdom still owed nominal allegiance to the diminished Vijayanagara Empire. From this period, the foundation of a kingdom was layed. As a result, the Mysore court became the centre for production of rich literature in the decades to follow. Tirumalarya I, Raja Wodeyar's court poet composed the Karna Vrittanta Kathe in sangatya metre. Raja Wodeyar's grandson, King Chamaraja Wodeyar V (1617–1637) is the earliest among the Mysore kings known for their personal contribution to the fine arts. The king wrote Chamarajokti Vilasa, a translation of the Sanskrit Ramayana in the Valmiki tradition. His other writings are the Ashwashastra, Hayasara Samucchaya and Brahmottra Kanda.

During the rule of King Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar (1637–1659), the Kingdom attained complete freedom, as evident from the issue of gold coins called Phanams. This was followed by a period of political expansion within modern Southern Karnataka and a successful military encounter against the invading Mogul commander Ranadullah Khan. Govinda Vaidya, the most well-known poet in the royal court, wrote Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijaya (1648) in sangatya metre. In the eulogy, written in 26 chapters, Vaidya compares his patron king to "God Narasimha" (an avatar of the Hindu god Vishnu) and gives useful details of the kingdom, the king's court, the types of music composed by musicians and the instruments they used to render them. During this time, Bhattakalanka Deva, a Jain writer from Haduvalli town in South Kanara excelled as a grammarian of extraordinary talent. He was the last of the three notables who wrote comprehensively on Old-Kannada grammar (Nagavarma II and Keshiraja being the other two). He was an expert in Sanskrit grammar as well. His extant Kannada grammar, Karnataka Sabdanusasanam, containing 592 Sanskrit sutras (literary form written for concision) with vritti (glossary) and vyakhya (commentary), is written in four padas (chapters) and makes useful references to contemporary and earlier writers. His work is modelled after the earlier Sanskrit grammarians, Panini, Pujyapada and others and is considered an exhaustive work. The authors emphasis on the importance of Kannada language and its rich literary and poetic history is evident and was meant to be a rebuttal to the attitude shown by contemporary Sanskrit scholars towards Kannada language.

Shadaksharadeva, who attempted to revive the classical champu metre belonged to the Pampa tradition. A Veerashaiva by faith and the head of the Yelandur monastery, he was under the patronage of the Mysore court. A bilingual writer in Sanskrit and Kannada, his writings propagate his faith in the god Shiva. He wrote three well-known works in Kannada: Rakashekara Vilasa (1657), his best known poetic work, written during his early days, contains love as the main theme and rivals the poems in Lakshmisa's famous writing Jaimimi Bharata (17th century). It is derived from a well known Tamil story of King Satyendra Chola and is based on an earlier work by Vijayanagara Kannada writer Gubbi Mallanarya. In a noteworthy piece of elegiac poetry, the poet describes the lamentation of a mother in his own inimitable style. Upon hearing the news of her son's death by trampling under the hooves of Prince Rajashekara's horse, the mother rushes to the scene, and mourns, holding the body of her son in her lap. Vrishabhendra Vijaya (1671), is an poem of epic proportions, written in forty two cantos and 4,000 stanzas, and is an account of the 12th century reformer Basavanna. Sabarasankara Vilasa is a poem in five cantos narrating a popular tale of the battle between the god Shiva and the Pandava prince Arjuna. To test Arjuna's devotion in him, Shiva disguises himself as a hunter and fights a fierce battle with Arjuna. Toward the end, impressed with Arjuna's devotion, Shiva bestows him a weapon called Pashuptastra.

Other notable Kannada writers in the court of Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar were Shantaveera Deshika (Shivaganga Charitra in sangatya metre, 1650), Bhaskara (Beharaganita, on mathematics), Nanjakavi (Kanteerava Narasaraja Charitra) and Timmarasa (Markandeya Ramayana, 1650). Chamaiah (or Channarya), a court poet of King Dodda Devaraja Wodeyar (1659–1673), wrote a metrical history and a eulogy his patron king in Devarajendra Sangatya. In the Keladi court, Linganna wrote a historical piece accounting for the history of the Keladi dynasty in Keladinripavijayam and Tirumalabhatta wrote a poem called Shivagita.

The golden age

The reign of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (1673–1704) is a high point in the early history of the Kingdom of Mysore. The king was an able warrior and is known to have defeated even the Marathas on occasion, held the upper hand against the Nizam of Golconda and brought the Keladi territories under his domain by 1682. An able administrator, the king was inclined towards the Srivaishnava faith. His reign produced numerous prolific writers, not the least the king himself – he was an accomplished scholar in Kannada and a composer of music. A well-known treatise on music called Geeta Gopala, written in opera style and in the shatpadi metre is credited to him. Though inspired by Jayadeva's Geeta Govinda (c. 1200), it had an originality of its own. The work differs from the original in that the god Krishna and his Gopikas' are the protagonists of the play instead of Krishna and his consort Radha. The writing consists of fourteen sections, with seven songs in each section. It is considered an asset to student of music and literature. The kings other works are commentaries on the Bhagavata and the epic Mahabharata, a thirty verse long poem called Chikkadevaraya binappa ("Kings Petition"), and a collection of devotional poems composed in praise of the god Cheluva Narayanaswamy of Melkote.

Tirumalarya II, a native of Srirangapatna and son of Tirumalarya I was held in high esteem in the Mysore court. A childhood friend of the King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar, he served as his prime minister. Tirumalarya II authored five notable writings: Chikka Devaraja Saptapadi (1698), an important musical treatise and a eulogy for his patron king rendered in seven sections comprising fifty-two songs which exalts the king to the level of "God on Earth"; Apratimavira Charite ("History of the Peerless Hero"), a rhetorical eulogy of the king and treatise on poetics; Chikkadevaraja Vijaya, an account of the king's conquests, life and his ancestors in champu metre comprising six chapters; Chikkadevaraya Yaso-bhushana; and the prose piece Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, one of the earliest contemporary historicals describing the king's ancestry. In addition, Tirumalarya II composed seventy songs, most of which are in Kannada and a few in Telugu. Template:Kannada poets in 18th century Minister Chikkupadhyaya (or Lakshmipathi), a native of Terakanambi town in Mysore district was a zealous Srivaishnava and one of the most prolific Kannadas writers of his time. To his credit are over thirty works, mostly in the shatpadi metre. His best-known works are Vishnupurana (prose and champu versions, 1691); Divya Suri Charitre, a history of the twelve Alvar saints; Artha Panchaka ("Five truths"), on saint Pillai Lokacharya; Tiruvayimole, a commentary on saint Nammalvar; Kamalachala Mahatmya (1681); Hastigiri Mahatmya (1679); Rukmangada Charite (1681); Satvikabrahma-Vidya-Vilasa, treating on the Visishtadvaita philosophy; Yadugiri Mahatmya, a eulogy of saint Kadambi Srirangacharya; Yadavagiri Mahatmya, a eulogy of saint Kadambi Lakshmanacharya; numerous compositions in the champu, sangatya, and gadya (prose) metres; seventy songs in praise of his patron King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar (pen-name Chikkadevaraja); a collection of other songs called Shringarada Hadugalu and several commentaries.

Lakshmisa, a superb story-teller, a dramatist and a Vaishnava by faith, is one of the most well-known writers of Kavya (narrative poem). Kannada scholar H.S. Shiva Prakash opines he lived in mid-16th century, but R. Narasimhacharya and historian Nilakanta Sastri claim he was active in late 17th century, probably during the rule of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar. His Jaimini Bharata, written in shatpadi metre, is the poets Kannada version of the Hindu epic Mahabharata and is one of the most popular poems of the late medieval age. A collection of stories, the epic poem contains the famous tale of the Sita Parityaga ("Repudiation of Sita"). The author has succeeded in converting a religious story into a very human tale, making it popular even in modern times. For his deft usage of the language, the poet earned the honorific Upamalola (lit, "One of revels in similes and metaphors").

Singaraya, a brother of Tirumalarya II, wrote Mitravinda Govinda (1680), the earliest known classical drama in Kannada and a play inspired by the Sanskrit drama Ratnavali ("Pearl necklace" by King Harsha of Kannauj). Srirangamma and Sanchi Honnamma were the notable women poets in the court. Srirangamma (1685) wrote Padmini Kalyana, and Sanchi Honnamma (lit, "Honamma the betel bag bearer"), a Vokkaliga from Yelandur won accolades for her unique writing Hadibadeya Dharma ("Duty of the faithful wife") containing 479 stanzas in sangatya metre. Despite being employed as a betel bag bearer and a maid to Queen Devajammani, she claimed Alasingaraya, a court poet, her Guru. Her work narrates the struggles of women in society, and stresses on their need to fulfill their daily roles in family life.

Other writers under the patronage of King Chikka Devaraja Wodeyar were: Chidananda, a Jain poet wrote philosophical compositions called Tatwada Kirtanegalu (1675), Neeti Nrimaya and Munivamsha Bhyudaya in sangatya metre; Vaikunta Dasa (1680), a native of Belur composed Kirtanes on the god Vishnu (pen-name "Vaikunta") and songs such as Kapatamata; Timmakavi (Hari Vilasa in sangatya metre and Yadavagiri Mahatmya, 1677); Mallikarjuna (Sriranga Mahatmya, 1678) and Mallarasa (Dasavatara Charite)

Some Brahmin writers worthy of mention from the 17th century are Ramachandra (Asrasastra), Tirumalevaidya (Uttara Ramayana, 1650), Nagarasa of Pandharpur(Bhagavadgite), Timmarasa (Kshetraganita on geometry), and Venkayarya, a Haridasa of Penukonda (Krishnalilabhyudaya). Among Jains, Padmana Pandita (Hayasara Samuchchaya) and Chandrashekara (Ramachandra charitra, story of the Hindu god Rama) are notable. Among Veerashaiva writers are Harisvara (Prabhudeva Purana), Siddhananjesa, (Raghavanka Charitra and Gururaja Charitra), Prasabhushana (or Pemmisetti, Gurubhaktandara Charitre) and Mummadi Tamma (Sankara Samhita), Parvatesvara (Chatuacharya Purana), Sejjeya Siddhalingaraya (Malayaraja Charite) are well-known.

Age of Sarvajna

A mendicant Veerashaiva poet, moralist and a drifter whose early days are unclear, Sarvajna, (lit "The all knowing") has left his indelible mark on Kannada literature and the Kannada speaking people. He is known to have been a native of Abbalur town in Haveri district. Based on literary evidence scholars place him variously between the 15th and 18th centuries. Prabhu Prasad of the Sahitya Akademi feels he belonged to the mid-16th century, R. Narasimhacharya and H.S. Shiva Prakash claim he lived in the 17th century. To Sarvagnya goes the credit of re-vitalising the Vachana poetic tradition. His witty and didactic poems, numbering over 2,000, were written using the simple native tripadi metre. Some clues in his first fourteen of a series of poems ("Reminiscences of Birth") give an indication about his birth, parentage and his reasons for leaving home at an early age. A few of his later poems give more hints about his adulthood, his Guru and a possible unsuccessful marriage.

After the death of his guru, Sarvajna may have taken to asceticism, acquiring knowledge from the world, rather than from formal education, writing poems about the nature of people and places. His poems after the 14th focus on his spiritual quest. These poems cover a vast range of topics, from caste and religion to economics and administration, from arts and crafts to family life and health. People from a broad spectrum of life were commented upon: "Professionals such as priests, astrologers, sorcerers, tax collectors and accountants; artisans such as smiths, carpenters, tailors and potters; and businessmen such as oil men, money-lenders, fishermen and farmers", all have caught the poets discerning eye. Sarvajna reserves his compliments only for the farmers, weavers, real spiritual seekers and chaste housewives. A tomb in Hirekerur town in Haveri district is said to be is his final resting place. His poems, all of which end with his name "Sarvajna" constitute some of Kannada's most popular works. Sarvajna is to Kannada language what Bhartrhari is to Sanskrit language, Vemana is to Telugu and Thiruvalluvar is to Tamil. Neither was he patronized by royalty nor did he write for fame, his main aim was to instruct people about morality. A poem by Sarvajna:

A begging bowl in hand,

A vast land to wander in
The great god Shiva to guard me

What cause have I to fear, O Sarvajna?

That Hara slew the love-god once

Is just a lie. He is still alive,
Standing in the sideway glances,

O Sarvajna, of moon-faced girls.

18th century writings

Proliferation of Yakshagana

Template:Haridasa poets (Kannada) of 17th-19th century

Yakshagana, a rustic form of opera which draws upon themes from the Hindu epics, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Bhagavata, has an established history in the Kannada speaking region of over 400 years. In its rudimentary form, the script of the play contains prasanga (poetic songs) sung by the bhagavata (musician), to which improvised matu (dialogue) is added. Witty comments are interjected by hasyagaras (clowns). Musical instruments include maddale and chende (types of drums) and a sruti (harminoum like instrument). The Sugriva Vijaya (mid-16th century) by Kandukuru Rudrakavi is one of the earliest available manuscript of a Yakshagana play. It is based on the story of the monkey-king Sugriva who overthrew his powerful brother Vali to regain his kingdom in the Hindu epic Ramayana. While scholars have proposed various theories about the early origin and the forerunners of the Yakshagana, according to the musicologist Meera Rajaram Pranesh, the credit of writing the earliest available Yakshagana plays that include sangita (music), nataka (drama) and natya (dance) goes to the polyglot King Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar II (1673–1714). The king was proficient in Kannada, Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil and Prakrit. His fourteen Yakshagana compositions, written in various languages but in the Kannada script were discovered at the Government manuscripts library in Chennai.

Revival of Haridasa literature

The Haridasa literature propagates the dvaita philosophy of Madhvacharya. Their compositions have also been of immense value to the development of music and literature in general. While Hari (a form of god Vishnu) is main to their deity, their compositions show tolerance to other Vaishnava deities as well. By bringing the values cherished in the Upanishads (scripture) and Vedas (Hindu sacred texts) to the common man in simple Kannada, these itinerant Haridasas made valuable contributions as "ministrals of God". With the passing of the Vijayanagara era, the creation of the Haridasa literature slowed down for about a century, despite attempts by two dasa (devotee) poets, Mahapati Dasa (1611–1681), who wrote 600 compositions, and his son Krishna Dasa. The tradition however recovered in early 18th century under the able guidance of Vijaya Dasa (1687–1755), a native of Ceekalaparavi town in the Raichur district. Vijaya Dasa was inspired by the establishment of the monastery of saint Raghavendra Swami (of the Madhva monastic order) at Mantralayam. His lyrical compositions, 25,000 in all, written in the Purandara Dasa tradition with the ankita (pen-name) "Vijaya Vittala", have enriched Kannada literature. Most well-known among his disciples are Gopala Dasa ("Gopala Vittala", 1721–1769), Kallur Subbanna Dasa ("Vyasa Vittala"), Mohana Dasa ("Mohana Vittala"), Sheshagiri Dasa ("Guru Vijaya Vittala"), Prasanna Venkata Dasa (Prasanna Venkata) and Igi Venkatacharya (Casndeva Vittala"). Later, Gopala Dasa inspired Jagannatha Dasa to take to the Haridasa fold.

Jagannatha Dasa (1728–1809) is considered the most notable of the late-18th century Haridasas. Apart from a number of devotional songs, he is credited with two important writings; the Harikathamritasara, which treats on the philosophy of Madhvacharya, is considered an important piece. Written in the native shatpadi metre with a poetic touch, it contains 32 chapters comprising 988 stanzas in all; The Tattva Suvvali, containing 1,200 pithy and proverbial poems written in the native tripadi metre, it is known to have been a consolation to his widowed daughter. Among his many disciples, Pranesha Dasa, Prema Dasa and Kargagi Dasappa are the distinguished themselves. Other well-known Haridasas are Vitthala Dasa, Varaha Timmappa Dasa and Madhva Dasa. Among women, Helavanakatte Giriyamma ("Helavanakatte Ranga", early 18th century) and Harapanhally Bhimava are notable. Giriyamma authored fifty songs and five narrative poems, including Chandrahasana Kathe in a language that belies her humble education and also deep devotion. Harapanhally Bhimava ("Bhimesa Krishna", 1890) also came poet from a humble background. According to H.S. Shiva Prakash, about 300 saint-poets from this cadre enriched Kannada literature during the 18th–19th centuries. A poem by Helavanakatte Giriyamma:

Women are taking out in vessels

Water from the well gone dry
While bringing it, they think all day:

O Hari, send the rain to us soon.

Other writings

Cheluvambe, a queen of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar I was an accomplished Kannada writer. Her notable works include Varanandi Kalyana written in the sangatya metre. The story narrates the wedding of Varanandi, the daughter of the Badshah of Delhi and the god Cheluvaraya Swamy of Melkote. In the writing, the author envisioned Varanandi to be a reincarnation of Satyabhama, the consort of the Hindu god Krishna. Her other compositions include Venkatachala Mahatmyam – a lullaby song written in choupadi metre in devotion to the Hindu god Venkateshwara residing on the Vrishabha hill, songs centred on Alamelu Mangamma, the consort of the Hindu god Venkateshwara of Tirupati, and songs in praise of the god Cheluvanarayana. Shalyada Krishnaraja, a poet and member from the royal family was proficient writer in Kannada, Telugu and Sanskrit. His contributions include devotional songs, Vachanas (poems in free verse), sangatya composition (Nija Dipika Ratna), Gadya composition (Anubhava Rasayana), and Kirthanes (Bhakti Marga Sarovara, Gnana Sarovara and Shalyada Arasinavara Tikina Kirtane).

Kalale Nanjaraja was the most noted of the Shaiva writers in the court of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II (1734–1766). For his literary taste, He earned the honorific Nutan Bhojaraja, a comparison to King Bhoja of medieval times. A native of Kalale town near Nanjangud, Nanjaraja came from a influential family of warriors, statesman and scholars. He was politically active and is known to have created a power centre, holding court in parallel to King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II. He was proficient in multiple languages and authored more than twenty writings in Kannada, Sanskrit and Telugu. Among his Kannada writings, Kukudgiri Mahatmya, and a musical composition called Aravattu muvara trivadhi, narrating the life of 63 ancient devotees of the god Shiva is well known.

Other Well-known Shaiva writers were Chenniah who worte in the sangatya metre (Padmini Parinaya, 1720), Nuronda who eulogised his patron King Krishnaraja Wodeyar II in Soundarya Kavya (c. 1740) in sangatya metre, and Sankara Kavi (Chorabasava Charitre, 18th century). Notable Jain writers of the period were Payanna (Ahimsacharitre), Padmaraja (Pujyapada Charitre, 1792), Padmanabha (Ramachandra Charitre), Surala (Padmavati Charitre), and Jayendra (Karnataka Kuvalayananda). Vaishnava writers who distinguished themselves were Lakshmakavi (Bharata in 1728, Rukmangada Charite), Venkatesha (Halasya Mahatmya, champu metre), Konayya (Krishnarjuna Sangara), Timmamatya (Ramabhyudaya Kathakusumamanjari, a version of the epic Ramayana), Timmarya of Anekal(Ananda Ramayana, 1708), Balavaidya Cheluva (Lilavati and an encyclopedia of precious stones called Ratnasastra), and Puttayia (Maisuru Arasugala Purvabhyudaya, a historical, c. 1713).

19th century writings

Age of prose and drama

Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1799-1868) is called the "Morning Star of the Renaissance in Karnataka". A patron of the fine arts, he was an accomplished writer, musician, musicologist and composer. After the British took over the administration of the kingdom in 1831, the king devoted all his time to developing the fine arts, earning him the honorific "Abhinava Bhoja" ("Modern Bhoja"). He gave munificent grants to scholars and was a prolific writer himself. Of the over forty writings attributed to him, a naveena katha ("prose romance") called Saugandhika Parinaya, in two versions (sangatya metre and a play) is best-known. In this writing, the author imaginatively narrates the story of the sage Durvasa who curses Devendra (the Hindu god Indra) to be born as Sucharitra, the son of King Sugandharaya of Ratnapuri. Devendra's wife Shachidevi takes birth as Sougandhika and marries Sucharitra. Apart from composing many devotional songs to his deity, the Hindu goddess Chamundeshwari, with the ankita (pen-name) "Chamundi", he authored three noteworthy treatises on music: Sri Tatwanidhi and Swara Chudamani on music (in Sanskrit language and Kannada script) and Sara Sangraha Bharata on dance and music, dealing with tala ("rhythm") in the Kannada language.

Aliya Lingaraja Urs, a native of Heggadadevanakote town and a Aliya (lit, "son-in-law") of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III was a prolific writer with over fifty works spanning various genres: devotional songs, musical compositions, kavya (classical poems), over thirty Yakshaganas, and other dramas. The author used multiple pen-names including, linga, lingaraja and linganripa. For his contributions to the fine arts, he earned the title Ubhaya Kavita Visharada ("Master of poetry in two languages" – Kannada and Sanskrit). Among his best-known works are the poem Prabhavati Parinaya and the two versions of the classical epic Girija Kalyana ("Marriage of the mountain born goddess"), in Yakshagana style and in sangatya metre, giving an account of the birth of Girija, the daughter of Himavanta, her youthful days, her successful penance which resulted in her marriage to the Hindu god Shiva. Yadava, also a court-poet, penned two prose pieces, Kalavati Parinaya (1815) and Vachana Kadambari, a rendering of the Sanskrit original by poet Bana.

The Jain poet Devachandra (1770–1841) was in the court of Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and authored three noted works: Pujyapada Charite, on the life of the Jain saint Pujyapada in sangatya metre; Ramakathavatara, the poets Jain version of the Hindu epic Ramayana; and Rajavalikathe (1838), a biographical account of the royal family, some earlier poets, and stories of religious importance. Another Jain writer of merit was Chandrasagaravarni, author of Kadambapurana and other works. Devalapurada Nanjunda of Nanjangud town, a mere court attendant, rose to the level of a court poet for his scholarship in Kannada and Sanskrit. Among his many compositions, Sougandhika Parinaya in sangatya metre, Samudra Mathana Kathe (a Yakshagana play), Sri Krishna Sarvabhoumara Charitre in sangatya metre and Krishnendra Gite in choupadi metre are well-known. He earned the honorific Ubhaya Bhasha Kavi ("Poet of two languages"). Modern Kannada prose was born in 1823 when Mudra Manjusha ("Seal Casket"). It is an elaboration of a play summarised in the Sanskrit original by Vishakadatta and was written by Kempu Narayana, a court poet of King Krishnaraja Wodeyar III.

External influences

Eager to spread their gospel in Kannada, Christian missionaries took to Kannada language. The establishment of the printing press and English language education in schools had a positive effect on Kannada prose. Periodicals and newspapers were published for the first time. The first Kannada language book was printed in 1817 and the first Bible in 1820. Grammar and lexicon, meant to help the missionaries in their effort in spreading Christianity became available. Rev. Reeve compiled the earliest English-Kannada dictionary in 1824 followed by a Kannada-English dictionary in 1832, though the best-known work is a 1894 publication by Rev. Kittel. Rev. Carrey published the earliest Kannada grammar in 1817. The influence of English literature and poetry on Kannada was evident from the numerous songs of prayer composed by the missionaries. British officer B.L. Rice published versions of ancient classics and deciphered numerous inscriptions, while Fleet published folk ballads such as Sangoli Rayana Dange ("Sangoli Raya's Revolt"). The first Kannada newspaper, Mangalura Samachara was published in Mangalore in 1843. In a few short years, printing presses opened in many locations, including the Mysore palace.

A surge in the generation of prose narratives and dramatic literatures, inspired by writings in English, Sanskrit, modern Marathi and modern Bengali languages culminated in original works in the succeeding decades. In the field of prose, translation of English classics such as Yatrikana Sanchara ("The Pilgrim Progress" by Bunyan, 1847) and Robinson Crusoe (1857) set the trend. Translations from vernacular languages were popular too and included the Marathi classic Yamuna Prayatana (1869) and the Bengali work Durgesanandini (1885). In the genre of drama, inspiration came from translations of Sanskrit and English plays. Shakuntala (from Sanskrit, 1869) and Raghavendrarao Nataka ("Othello") by Churamuri Sehagiri Rao (1869), Pramilarjuniya by Srikantesa Gowda and Vasanthayamini Swapnachamatkara Nataka by K. Vasudevachar ("Midsummer Night's Dream"), Macbeth by Srikantesa Gowda, King Lear by M.S. Puttanna, Ramavarma-Lilavati ("Romeo and Juliet") by C. Ananda Rao paved the way.

Basavappa Shastry (1882), a native of Mysore and court poet of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III and Chamaraja Wodeyar IX, earned the honorific Kannada Nataka Pitamaha ("Father of Karnataka stage") for his contributions to drama. His contribution to dramatic literature in the from of anthologies, translations and adaptations from English and Sanskrit, learned editions, and successful integration of musical compositions into drama is well accepted. His translations from English to Kannada include Shurasena Charite ("Othello"). His Sanskrit to Kannada translations include, Kalidasa, Abhignyana Shakuntala, Vikramorvasheeya, Malavikagnimitra, Uttara Rama Charite, Chanda Koushika Nataka, Malathi Madhava and Ratnavali. Other well-known Kannada writers in Chamaraja Wodeyar IX's court were S.G. Narasimhacharya, Dhondo Narasimha Mulabaglu, Santa Kavi and B. Ventakacharya.

The earliest modern novels in the Kannada language are the Suryakantha by Lakshmi Gadagkar (1892) and the Indrabayi (1899) by Gulvadi Venkata Rao. The later work is reformist and decried corruption and encouraged widow remarriages. A similar reformist outlook pervaded the earliest modern plays by Suri Venkataramana Shastri's Iggappa Heggadeya Vivaha Prahasana ("Iggappa Heggade's farce of marriage", 1887), Dhareswar's Kanya Vikraya (1887) and Santa Kavi's Vatsalaharana (1885).

Developments in early 20th century

The 20th century saw the blossoming of Navodaya ("New beginning") style of Kannada literature in genres such as lyrical poems, drama, novel and short stories, with the strong influence of English literature. B. M. Srikantaiah's English Geetagalu ("English songs", 1921) was the path-breaker in the genre of modern lyrical poetry. The earliest stalwarts in the field of modern historical drama and comedy were T. P. Kailasam and A.N. Swami Venkatadri Iyer (also called "Samsa"). Kailasam sought to critique social developments by producing plays that questioned the utility of the modern education system in Tollu Gatti (1918, "The Hollow and the Solid") and the dowry system in Tali Kattoke Cooline ("Wages for tying the Mangalsutra"). Samsa's ideal king, Ranadheera Kanteerava Narasaraja Wodeyar, is the protagonist of the play Vigada Vikramarya ("The Wicked Vikramarya", 1925).

Initial development in the genre of historical novels, in the form of translations and original works, helped re-kindle nationalistic feelings of Kannadigas. Venkatachar (Anandamatha) and Galaganath were among the first to write such novels. Galaganath's Madhava Karuna Vilasa (1923) described the founding of the Vijayanagara empire while his Kannadigara Karmakatha ("Kannadigas Fateful Tale") described the empires decline. In 1917, Alur Venkata Rao wrote the famous Karnataka Ghata Vaibhava, a summary of earlier works by J.F. Fleet, B.L. Rice, Bhandarkar and Robert Sewell, appealing to the Kannadigas to remember their glorious past, their ancient traditions and culture, their great rulers, saints and poets. Other well-known works were Kerur Vasudevachar's Yadu Maharaja describing the rise of the Wodeyar dynasty and Vasudevaiah's Arya Kirti (1896). The tradition of novels started by Gulvadi Venkata Rao (1899) reached maturity in 1915 with M.S. Puttanna's Madidunno Maharaya (Sir, as you sow, so you reap"), a historical novel written in flowing prose and whose theme is set in the times of Maharaja Krishnaraja Wodeyar III. To Puttanna also goes the credit for writing th earliest biography called Kunigal Ramashastriya Charitre ("The story of Kunigal Ramashastri"). The genre of short story made its initial beginnings with Panje Mangesh Rao, M.N. Kamath and Kerur Vasudevachar, but it was Masti Venkatesh Iyengar who stole the limelight with and set a trend for others to follow in his Kelavu Sanne Kathegalu ("A few short stories", 1920) and Sanna Kathegalu ("Short stories", 1924).

The efforts of these early pioneers was to become a forerunner for the golden age of modern Kannada literature to follow, with such noted poets and writers as D. R. Bendre, K. Shivaram Karanth, Kuvempu, V. K. Gokak to follow.

Notes

1. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 17
2. Geometry (Beharaganita, 17th century); Biography (Kanteerava Narasaraja Vijaya, 1648); Old-Kannada grammar (Karnataka Sabdanusasana 1604); Trignometry (Kshetraganita, 17th century); Historical (Chikkadevaraja Vamshavali, 17th century); Drama (Mitravinda Govinda 1680); Musical treatise (Sara Sangraha Bharata, 19th century); and the Prose historical Mudra Manjusha (1823) – Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 23–26; Kamath (2001), p. 228, 280; Pranesh (2003), pp. 11, 60; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89
3. Nagaraj (2003), p. 370, p. 377
4. Kamath (2001), p. 220, p. 226
5. Kamath (2001), pp. 228–229
6. Kamath (2001), p. 220, p. 225
7. Kamath (2001), pp. 231–234
8. Kamath (2001), p. 249
9. Shipley (2007), p. 528
10. ^ Ashton (2003), p. 22
11. ^ Brandon and Banham (1993), p.115
12. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 200–201; Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 884
13. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1998), p. 1551
14. Murthy (1992), pp. 167–170
15. Kamath (2001), pp. 227, 229–230; Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23, p26; Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Shipley (2007), p. 528; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90
16. Shipley (2007), p. 528; Nagaraj (2003), p. 379
17. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 192, 210; Pranesh (2003), p. 21, p. 32, pp. 87–88; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1764
18. ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 42–43
19. ^ Pranesh (2003), pp. 49–50
20. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 17, 65–66
21. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 164, 169–170, 192–193
22. Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 61–64
23. Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 17, 61
24. Sastri (1955), pp. 360–361; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 56
25. Kamath (2001), p. 115; Nagaraj in Pollock (2003), p. 21
26. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 59; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1324
27. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 163–164, 166–167
28. Sastri (1955), p. 362; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 188
29. Sahitya Akademi (1987), pp. 551–552, pp. 403–404; Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 179–205
30. Sastri (1955), p. 362; Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 1181
31. E.P.Rice (1921), pp. 43–44; Sastri (1955), p. 359
32. Nagaraj (2003), p. 368
33. Sharma (1961), p. 514–555
34. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 212
35. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 166–167, 193–194
36. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 163–164, 166–167
37. Nagaraj (2003), p. 377
38. Kamath (2001), pp. 225–226; Rice E.P. (1921), p. 83
39. Nagaraj (2003), p. 378
40. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 91–92
41. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89
42. ^ Ashton (2003), p. 17–18
43. ^ Brandon and Banham (1993), p. 115
44. Ashton (2003), p. 17
45. Ashton (2003), p. 21
46. Karanth in Ashton (2003), p. 20
47. Ashton (2003), p. 21
48. ^ Kamath and Kher (2000)
49. Sharma (2000), p. xxxii
50. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 189
51. Nagaraj (2003), p. 379; Shipley (2007), p. 528; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
52. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191; Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Prasad (1987), p. 16
53. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 188–189
54. Nagaraj (2003), p. 378
55. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 190–191
56. ^ Murthy (1992), p. 167
57. Murthy (1992), p. 168
58. Murthy (1992), pp. 168–169
59. Murthy (1992), p. 169
60. Murthy (1992), p. 170
61. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 227
62. Pranesh (2003), p. 6
63. Pranesh (2003), p. 7
64. Kamath (2001), p. 228
65. Kamath (2001), p. 227; Pranesh (2003), p. 11
66. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p 476
67. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1182
68. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
69. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
70. Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 3934
71. Sahitya Akademi (1988), p.1149–1150
72. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1992), p. 3934 Cite error: The named reference "pashupa" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
73. Pranesh (2003), p. 16
74. Kamath (2001), p. 228
75. Rice (1921), p. 89
76. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89; Pranesh (2003), p. 17
77. Kamath (2001), p. 220, p. 222
78. Kamath (2001), p. 228–229
79. Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Shipley (2007), p. 528
80. Kamath (2001), p. 230; Pranesh (2003), p. 20
81. Mukherjee (1999), p. 78; Pranesh (2003), p. 21
82. Kamath (2001), p. 230; Mukherjee (1999), p. 528
83. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 90
84. Pranesh (2003), pp. 29–30
85. Narasimhacharya (1988), pp. 23–24, 62, 64
86. Mukherjee (1999), p. 77–78
87. Pranesh (2003), p. 31
88. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 23; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 213
89. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
90. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 91
91. Pranesh (2003), pp. 31–32
92. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 59; Sastri (1955), p. 365
93. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 210; Kamath (2001), p. 230
94. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24
95. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 62; Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077
96. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 34
97. Kamath (2001), p. 230; Mukherjee (1999), p. 135
98. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), pp. 32–33
99. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Pranesh (2003), p. 33
100. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 92
101. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 24; Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
102. Prasad (1987), p. 16
103. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
104. Prasad (1987), p. 7
105. Prasad (1987), pp. 9–10
106. Prasad (1987), pp. 17–20
107. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 191
108. Prasad (1987), p. 15
109. Prasad (1987), pp. 5–6
110. Shiva Prakash (1997), pp. 191–192
111. Brandan and Banham (1993), pp. 115–116
112. Ashton (2003), pp. 17–23
113. Pranesh (2003), p. 37
114. Pranesh (2003), p37–38
115. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 884
116. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1987), p. 883
117. ^ Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1764
118. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201; Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
119. Rice E.P. (1921) p. 81
120. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201
121. Shiva Prakash (1997), p. 201
122. ^ Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
123. Pranesh (2003), p. 45
124. Pranesh (2003), p. 49
125. Pranesh (2003), p. 43
126. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25; Pranesh (2003), p. 49
127. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
128. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 25
129. Rice E.P. (1921), p. 89
130. Kamath (2001), p. 278
131. Pranesh (2003), p. 54
132. Kamath (2001), p. 278; Pranesh (2003), p. 53
133. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 26; Murthy (1992), p. 167
134. Pranesh (2003), p. 55
135. Pranesh (2003), p. 60
136. Pranesh (2003), pp. 78–79
137. Murthy (1992), p. 168; Pranesh (2003), p. 80
138. Narasimhacharya (2003), p. 26
139. Murthy (1992), p. 167
140. Mukherjee (1999), p. 89
141. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 26
142. Pranesh (2003), pp. 87–88
143. Kamath (2001), p. 280; Mukherjee (1999), p. 238
144. ^ Murthy (1992), p. 168
145. ^ Kamath (2001), p. 279
146. Kamath (2001), p. 281
147. Murthy (1992), p. 168
148. Murthy (1992), p. 168–169; Kamath (2001), p. 281
149. Murthy (1992), p. 169; Kamath (2001), p. 282
150. Das (1991), p. 238
151. Sahitya Akademi (1988), p. 1077; Pranesh (2003), p. 82
152. Narasimhacharya (1988), p. 26
153. Murthy (1992), p. 169; Kamath (2001), p. 281
154. Murthy (1992), p. 169
155. Murthy (1992), pp. 170–173
156. Murthy (1992), pp. 170–171
157. Murthy (1992), p. 171
158. Murthy (1992), pp. 171–172
159. Kamath (2001), p. 281; Murthy (1992), p. 172
160. Murthy (1992), p. 172
161. Murthy (1992), p. 172
162. Murthy (1992), p. 172

References

• Ashton, Martha Bush (2003) . "History of Yakshagana". Yakshagana. Abhinav Publications. ISBN 8170170478.
• Das, Sisir Kumar (1991). A History of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8172010060.
• Brandon and Banham, James and Martin (1993) . The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521588227.
• Kamath, Suryanath U. (2001) . A concise history of Karnataka : from pre-historic times to the present. Bangalore: Jupiter books. OCLC 7796041.
• Kamath and Kher, M.V. and V.B. (2000) . Sai Baba of Shirdi:A Unique Saint. Jaico Publishing House. ISBN 8172240309.
• Murthy, K. Narasimha (1992). "Modern Kannada Literature". In George K.M (ed.). Modern Indian Literature:An Anthology - Vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8172013248.
• Mukherjee, Sujit (1999) . A Dictionary of Indian Literature. Orient Blackswan. ISBN 8125014535.
• Nagaraj, D.R. (2003) . Sheldon I. Pollock (ed.). Literary Cultures in History: Reconstructions from South Asia. Berkeley and London: University of California Press. ISBN 0520228219. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help); Unknown parameter |Chapter= ignored (|chapter= suggested) (help)
• Narasimhacharya, R (1988) . History of Kannada Literature. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-0303-6.
• Pranesh, Meera Rajaram (2003) . Musical Composers during Wodeyar Dynasty (1638-1947 A.D.). Bangalore: Vee Emm Publications.
• Prasad, K.B. Prabhu (1987) . Sarvajna. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 817201404X.
• Rice, E. P. (1982) . Kannada Literature. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. ISBN 8120600630.
• Sharma, B.N.K (2000) . History of the Dvaita School of Vedanta and Its Literature: From the Earliest Beginnings to Our Own Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 8120815750.
• Shipley, Joseph T. (2007) . Encyclopedia of Literature - Vol I. READ BOOKS. ISBN 1406701351.
• Shiva Prakash, H.S. (1997). "Kannada". In Ayyappapanicker (ed.). Medieval Indian Literature:An Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126003650.
• Various (1992) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126012218.
• Various (1988) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 2. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126011947.
• Various (1987) . Encyclopaedia of Indian literature - vol 1. Sahitya Akademi. ISBN 8126018038.

v t e State of Karnataka
Capital: Bengaluru
State symbols	Emblem: Emblem of Karnataka Song: Jaya Bharata Jananiya Tanujate Animal: Asian elephant Bird: Indian roller Flower: Lotus Tree: Sandalwood Fruit: Mango Fish: Carnatic carp Insect: Southern birdwing
Overviews	Architecture Cinema Climate Cuisine Demography Economy Education Folk arts Geography History Media People Sports Transportation Wildlife
History	Aihole Alupa dynasty Amoghavarsha Badami Banavasi Balligavi Belur Chalukya dynasty Chitradurga Nayakas Deva Raya II Durvinita Halebidu Kingdom of Coorg Halmidi Hampi Hoysala Empire Kadamba dynasty Kalyani Chalukyas Keladi Nayakas Shivappa Nayaka Kittur Chennamma Kingdom of Mysore Mayurasharma Pattadakal Pulakeshin II Rashtrakuta dynasty Sringeri Srirangapatna Tipu Sultan Unification of Karnataka Vijayanagara Empire Vijayanagara Vishnuvardhana Veera Ballala II Vikramaditya II Vikramaditya VI Western Ganga dynasty
Districts and divisions	Bangalore division Bangalore Urban Bangalore Rural Chitradurga Davanagere Kolar Shimoga Tumakuru Ramanagara Chikkaballapura Belagavi division Bagalkot Belagavi Bijapur Dharwad Haveri Gadag Uttara Kannada Kalaburagi division Ballari Bidar Kalaburagi Koppal Raichur Vijayanagara Yadgir Mysore division Chamarajanagar Chikmagalur Dakshina Kannada Hassan Kodagu Mandya Mysore Udupi
Geography	Cities and towns Districts Rivers Dams and reservoirs Taluks Villages Highest point Bayalu Seeme Malenadu Kanara Western Ghats
Culture	Bharatanatyam Buta Kola Bidriware Channapatna toys Chitrakala Parishat Gaarudi Gombe Ilkal sari Kamsale Kannada Karnatik music Kasuti Khedda Mysore Dasara Togalu gombeyaata Udupi cuisine Veeragase Yakshagana Mysore musicians
Literature	Kannada Milestones Epics Medieval Rashtrakuta Western Ganga Western Chalukya Hoysala Vijayanagara Vachana Haridasa Mysore Play Modern Kannada Sahitya Parishat Kannada Sahitya Sammelana Karnataka
Noted poets	Asaga Gunavarma I Adikavi Pampa Sri Ponna Ranna Devar Dasimayya Basava Akka Mahadevi Allama Prabhu Siddharama Harihara Raghavanka Rudrabhatta Janna Kumara Vyasa Chamarasa Nijaguna Shivayogi Ratnakaravarni Purandara Dasa Kanaka Dasa Vijaya Dasa Gopala Dasa Jagannatha Dasa Lakshmisa Sarvajna Shishunala Sharif Krishnaraja Wadiyar III D. R. Bendre Gopalakrishna Adiga V. Seetharamaiah K. S. Narasimhaswamy M. Govinda Pai Kuvempu D. V. Gundappa G. S. Shivarudrappa
People and society	Karnataka ethnic groups List of people from Karnataka
Tourism	Beaches Dams Forts National parks Hindu temples Jain temples Waterfalls
Awards	Karnataka Ratna Pampa Award Nrupatunga Award Basava Puraskara Rajyotsava Prashasti Jakanachari Award Varnashilpi Venkatappa Award Kempegowda Award
Media	Cinema Newspapers Magazines Television Radio

• Kannada literature
• Literature of Karnataka
• Indian literature
• Early Modern literature