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Jehovah's Witnesses is a restorationist, millenialist Christian religious movement. Sociologists of religion have classified the group as an Adventist sect. The religion emerged from the Bible Student Movement, founded in the late 19th century by Charles Taze Russell. It underwent significant changes between 1917 and the 1940s as its authority structure was centralized and its preaching methods brought under greater regimentation. The religion today claims an active worldwide membership of approximately 7 million.

They are most well-known for their door-to-door preaching, and their refusal of military service and blood transfusions. The religion's stance of conscientious objection to military service has brought it into conflict with governments that conscript citizens for military service, and activities of Jehovah's Witnesses have subsequently been banned in some countries. The refusal of Jehovah's Witnesses to accept blood transfusions has necessitated advances in the medical practice of bloodless surgery.

Since 1876, adherents have believed that they are living in the last days of the present world. In the years leading up to 1925 and 1975, the religion's publications expressed strong expectations that Armageddon would occur in those years, both times resulting in surges in membership and subsequent defections.

The organization's teachings and practices diverge greatly from traditional Christian theology, which has caused several major Christian denominations to denounce the group as either a cult or heretical sect. Medical ethicists have criticized Jehovah's Witnesses as an authoritarian group that coerces members to obey doctrines including the ban on blood transfusions. Former adherents have claimed that the religion demands unquestioning obedience from members, with the consequence of expulsion and shunning facing any who fail to comply with, express doubts about, or disagree with its doctrines.

History

1879-1916: Charles Taze Russell and the Bible Students

From the early 1870s, Charles Taze Russell studied the Bible with a group of Millerist Adventists including George Storrs and George Stetson, and from 1874, Russell jointly edited a religious journal, Herald of the Morning. In July 1879, Russell began leading a Bible study group and publishing the magazine, Zion's Watch Tower and Herald of Christ's Presence, highlighting his interpretations of biblical chronology, with particular attention to his belief that the world was in "the last days". In 1881 Zion's Watch Tower Tract Society was formed in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, to disseminate tracts, papers, doctrinal treatises and Bibles; three years later, on December 15, 1884, Russell became the president of the Society when it was legally incorporated in Pennsylvania.

Watch Tower supporters gathered as autonomous congregations to study the Bible and Russell's writings. Russell firmly rejected as "wholly unnecessary" the concept of a formal organization for his followers and declared his group had no record of its members' names, no creeds and no sectarian name. The group became known as "Bible Students". Russell died on October 31, 1916, and control of the Watch Tower magazine was temporarily passed to an Editorial Committee as outlined in Russell's will, with an Executive Committee in control of the Society.

1916-1942: Joseph Rutherford

Organizational changes

In January 1917, Joseph Franklin Rutherford was elected the next president of the Watch Tower Society. A power struggle developed between Rutherford and the Society's Board of Directors, who objected to his style of leadership. On July 17, 1917 Rutherford dismissed four of the directors, claiming they had not been legally elected. He then announced the release of The Finished Mystery as the seventh volume of Studies in the Scriptures; the book was described as "a posthumous publication ... of Charles Taze Russell", but was actually written by two other Bible Students. Controversy erupted over Rutherford's actions and many Bible Students left to form various splinter groups. Eight years later, Rutherford dismissed the Watch Tower's Editorial Committee following a dispute over a proposed article, giving him full control of the organization and material published in the magazine.

The Finished Mystery strongly criticised Catholic and Protestant clergy and Christian involvement in war. Citing this book, the United States federal government indicted Rutherford and the new board of directors for violation of the Espionage Act on May 7, 1918. They were found guilty and sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. However, in March 1919, the judgment against them was reversed and they were released from prison; the charges were later dropped. Patriotic fervor during World War I fueled persecution of the Bible Students in both America and Europe, including mob violence and tarring and feathering.

Rutherford continued to tighten and centralize organizational control of the Bible Students, with the Brooklyn headquarters appointing a "director" in each congregation in 1919, and a year later requiring all congregation members who participated in the preaching work to report weekly on their preaching activity. In 1932, Rutherford eliminated the system of congregations electing bodies of elders. In 1938, he introduced a "theocratic" or "God-ruled" organizational system in which the Brooklyn headquarters would make all appointments in congregations worldwide. On July 26, 1931, the name Jehovah's Witnesses was adopted by resolution at a convention in Columbus, Ohio, based on the American Standard Version's rendering of Isaiah 43:10: "Ye are my witnesses, saith Jehovah".

Doctrinal changes

At an international convention held at Cedar Point, on September 1922, a new emphasis was made on house-to-house preaching. Significant changes in doctrine were made under Rutherford's leadership, including the 1918 announcement that Jewish patriarchs (such as Abraham and Isaac) would be resurrected in 1925, marking the beginning of Christ's thousand-year reign, accompanied by an earthly paradise. The failed expectations for 1925 coupled with other doctrinal changes, led to a dramatic reduction in attendance at their yearly Memorial from 90,434 in 1925 to 17,380 in 1928. By 1933, the timing of the beginning of Christ's presence (Greek: parousi'a), his enthronement as king, and the start of the "last days", were each moved to 1914. From 1935 converts to the movement were generally identified as those who, if worthy, would survive Armageddon and live on a paradise earth. Membership before this time was generally composed of those who believed they would be resurrected to live in heaven to rule over the earth with Christ.

As their interpretations of Scripture continued to develop, Witnesses were told that saluting the flag or standing for the national anthem are forms of idolatry. They were also told to refuse alternative service provided for those who had conscientous objection to military service. In Germany, Jehovah's Witnesses came under persecution, with as many as 5000 imprisoned in concentration camps. Witnesses also experienced mob violence in the US and were banned in Canada and Australia because of their refusal to accept military service.

1942-present: Nathan Knorr, Frederick Franz, Milton Henschel, Don Adams

Nathan Knorr was named the third president of the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society following Rutherford's death in January 1942. Knorr instituted major new training programs – the Theocratic Ministry School for all congregation members, and the Gilead School for missionaries. He also organized large-scale conventions attracting as many as 253,000 Witnesses to sports stadiums in the US, Canada and Germany, and began a campaign of real estate acquisition in Brooklyn to expand the organisation's world headquarters. He commissioned a new translation of the Bible, which was released progressively from 1950 before being published as the complete New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures in 1961. Knorr's vice-president, Frederick William Franz, became the leading theologian for the religion and helped shape the further growth of explicit rules on what conduct was acceptable among members, with a greater emphasis placed on disfellowshipping as a disciplinary measure.

From 1938 to 1955 the Witnesses launched a series of cases in the US Supreme Court to defend their right to worship and proselytize, winning 36 out of 45 cases.

From 1966, Witness publications began using their interpretations of biblical chronology to heighten anticipation of Christ's thousand-year millennial reign beginning in late 1975. Focus on 1975 was intensified with talks given at conventions; in 1974 a Watchtower Society publication commended Witnesses who had sold homes and property to devote themselves to preaching in the "short time" remaining. The number of baptisms soared, from about 59,000 in 1966 to more than 297,000 in 1974, but membership declined after expectations for the year were proved wrong. In 1980 the Watchtower Society admitted its responsibility in building up hope regarding 1975.

The offices of elder and ministerial servant were restored to Witness congregations in 1972, with appointments being made from headquarters. In a major organizational overhaul in 1976, the power of the Watchtower Society president was diminished, with authority for doctrinal and organizational decisions passed to the religion's Governing Body. Presidents since Knorr's death in 1977 have been Frederick Franz (1977-1992), Milton Henschel (1992-2000) and Don A. Adams (2000-).

Organization

Jehovah's Witnesses are organized under a hierarchical arrangement their leadership calls a "theocratic government" – the belief that it is God's organization on earth.

The organization is headed by the Governing Body, based in the Watchtower Society's Brooklyn, New York headquarters – an all-male group that varies in size, but since 2005 has comprised nine members, all of whom profess to be of the "anointed" class with a hope of heavenly life. There is no election for membership, with new members selected by the existing body. The Governing Body is described as the "spokesman" for God's "faithful and discreet slave class" (the approximately 8000 remaining "anointed" Jehovah's Witnesses), and is said to provide "spiritual food" for Witnesses worldwide on behalf of the "faithful and discreet slave class". In practice it seeks neither advice nor approval from any "anointed" Witnesses other than high-ranking members at Brooklyn Bethel when formulating policy and doctrines or when producing material for publications and conventions.

The Governing Body directs many committees that are responsible for various administrative functions, including publication, assembly programs and evangelizing activity. The committees oversee operations of Watchtower Society branch offices around the world, from which, District and Circuit Overseers are appointed to supervise congregations within their jurisdiction.

Witnesses have no formal clergy-laity division. Congregations are served by a body of appointed male elders and ministerial servants. Elders maintain general responsibility for congregational governance, setting meeting times, selecting speakers and conducting meetings, directing the public preaching work and creating "judicial committees" to investigate and decide disciplinary action for cases that are seen as breaching scriptural or organizational laws. Elders are appointed by the society after recommendation from the local body of elders. Ministerial servants – appointed in a similar fashion to elders – fulfil clerical and attendant duties, but may also teach and conduct meetings.

Beliefs

Doctrinal positions on the Bible are gained by what Witness publications describe as "progressive revelation". The term is undefined in Watchtower literature, but commonly taken to mean the application of reason and study as well as the undefined guidance of the Holy Spirit. The Watchtower has also suggested the organization has received direct, latter-day revelations. Rutherford spoke of spiritual "lightning flashes in the temple", and the Society claims its doctrine of the "great crowd" and "other sheep" were "revealed" to Rutherford in 1935; and Witness literature has also described sudden changes in doctrines as "flashes of light" given by God through his holy spirit. A 1930 publication claimed God used "invisible deputies" and "invisible angels" to pass his "messages" to the Watchtower.

Unless explicitly stated, statements in this section reflect the beliefs of Jehovah's Witnesses.

Jehovah

Emphasis is given to the use of God's Biblical name, the Tetragrammaton, and in English they prefer to use the name, Jehovah. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jehovah is the only true God, the Creator of all things, and give him the title "Universal Sovereign". They believe that all worship should be directed toward him. Jehovah's Witnesses see mankind as participants in a challenge involving the competing claims of Jehovah and Satan to universal sovereignty.

Jesus Christ

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Jesus was created by Jehovah, and that Jehovah then created everything else by means of Jesus. While on Earth as a human, Jesus performed miracles, but he does not perform them now. Jesus served as a ransom sacrifice to pay for the sins of mankind. They believe that Jesus died on a single upright torture stake rather than the traditional cross. They believe that references in the Bible to the Archangel Michael, Apollyon, and Abaddon also refer to Jesus.

Satan

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that Satan is the invisible ruler of the world. He was at one time a perfect son of God but developed feelings of self-importance and craved worship that belonged to God. Satan persuaded Adam and Eve to obey him rather than God and thus raised the issue of who can rightfully claim to be sovereign of the universe. Satan is misleading people on Earth and he and the demons are the reason for pain and suffering. In October 1914 Satan and his demons were cast down to earth from heaven and the end times began.

Salvation

Publications of Jehovah's Witnesses have stated that only Jehovah and Jesus determine who will survive Armageddon but that only those serving Jehovah have any hope of survival. Jesus' death was necessary to atone for the sin brought into the world by Adam and created the possibility of everlasting life for humans. 144,000 anointed Christians will receive immortal life in heaven as co-rulers with Christ over the rest of humanity during the Millennial Reign. God’s kingdom was established in heaven with Jesus Christ as king in 1914. During the war of Armageddon the wicked will be destroyed. The survivors and those who will be resurrected will form a new earthly society ruled by a heavenly government.

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The majority of Jehovah's Witnesses expect to live in a renewed paradise on Earth. They believe that after Armageddon most humans who have died, apart from those who are executed by God at Armageddon, will be resurrected and allowed to prove their worthiness of being judged righteous and living forever. Those who are resurrected will be granted a period of one thousand years to demonstrate their obedience to God.

Mortality

Jehovah's Witnesses believe that death is a state of non-existence with no consciousness. They do not believe in any Hell of fiery torment. Hades and Sheol are understood to refer to the condition of death, termed common grave. They consider the soul and body to be the living being that expires. Their hope for life after death involves being resurrected by God, either with a new or renewed body on earth after Armageddon, or to heaven for the limited number of 144,000.

Authority of the Bible

Jehovah's Witnesses teach that the entire Bible (following the Protestant canon, hence excluding the deuterocanonical books) is the inspired word of God and accurate in regard to history and prophecy, although they assert that the Bible also uses symbolism, parable, figures of speech, and poeticism. Jehovah's Witnesses reject the term "fundamentalist" as a description of the religion's beliefs. The leadership of Jehovah's Witnesses claims to be the sole visible channel of Jehovah and asserts that the Bible cannot be understood without its assistance.

Cross

Jehovah's Witnesses reject the idea that Jesus died on a cross, and instead teach that he died on a single wooden stake, asserting that the Koiné Greek word "stauros" refers to a single upright post. They view the cross to be of pagan origins and an object of idol worship. Some Jehovah's Witnesses have been persecuted or killed for not bowing down to or kissing the cross.

Practices

Proselytization

Jehovah's Witnesses are perhaps best known for their efforts to spread their beliefs throughout the world. They do this mainly by visiting people from house to house. Free home Bible studies are offered to people who show interest in their beliefs. They use their publications, such as The Watchtower, to explain their beliefs. Literature is published in many languages through a wide variety of books, magazines and other publications, with a small selection available in at least 448 languages. They believe that their preaching work is a form of humanitarian effort by helping people apply Biblical principles to improve their lives, and that their preaching work gives people hope for the future. Witnesses are instructed to devote as much time as possible to preaching activities and are required to provide a monthly report to their congregation on their witnessing activity.

Ethics and morality

Their view of morality reflects conservative Christian values. All sexual relations outside of marriage are grounds for expulsion (disfellowshipping) if the accused is not deemed repentant. Abortion is considered murder.

Modesty in dress and grooming is frequently emphasized. Gambling, drunkenness, illegal drugs, and tobacco use are forbidden.

The family structure is patriarchal. The husband is considered the final authority on family decisions, but is encouraged to solicit his wife's thoughts and feelings, as well as those of his children. Marriages are required to be monogamous. Divorce is permissible only for adultery or cases in which a Witness's partner forces on them "repugnant and perverted" sexual practices. Abuse and willful nonsupport of one's family are considered grounds for separation.

Disfellowshipping

Jehovah's Witnesses practice what they have uniquely termed "disfellowshipping", a form of excommunication employed where a member is considered unrepentant of committing a "serious sin". Members are not allowed to speak to individuals who are disfellowshipped, with the exception of parents of disfellowshipped minors still living in the family home. The intended purpose of disfellowshipping is to keep the congregation free from immoral influence and to shame wrong-doers into repentance.

Avoidance of interfaith activity

Jehovah's Witnesses contend that the Bible has always condemned the mixing of religions on the basis that there can only be one truth from God. They believe only their religion represents true Christianity and that all other religions fail to meet all the requirements set by God and will be destroyed. They are opposed to 'councils' that unite or combine different religions.

Celebrations

Weddings, anniversaries, and funerals are observed, however holidays such as Easter, Halloween, Valentine's Day, Mother's Day, and Christmas are not celebrated, as Jehovah's Witnesses believe these customs come from ancient pagan religions. Days such as Thanksgiving, Independence Day, or any national holiday are not observed by Jehovah's Witnesses because they believe it could compromise their neutrality. Birthday parties and celebrations are also avoided as days that lead to feelings of "self-importance".

Relationship with governments

Jehovah's Witnesses believe their allegiance belongs to God's Kingdom, which is viewed as an actual, heavenly government. Thus they refrain from saluting the flag of any country or singing nationalistic songs. They believe that these acts are contrary to biblical principles. The political neutrality of Jehovah's Witnesses is also expressed by their refusal to participate in military service – even when it is compulsory – and by their detachment from secular politics. However, they believe that they owe the secular authorities their obedience. Members are expected to obey all laws of their native governments, so long as these do not violate Bible principals. They are instructed to pay all taxes of the country in which they reside, considering the government to be solely responsible for how they are used.

Blood

Jehovah's Witnesses are opposed to blood transfusions based on their understanding of how the Bible says blood should be treated. In 1961, accepting a blood transfusion became grounds for expulsion from the religion. They do not accept the threat of death as sufficient to dissuade them from rejecting blood transfusions for themselves or their children. Jehovah's Witnesses believe that the Bible prohibits blood transfusions based on Acts 15:28-29.

While Jehovah's Witnesses are not permitted to accept red cells, white cells, platelets or plasma, they may accept fractions made from these components at their own discretion. The Watchtower Society provides members with Power of Attorney documents to indicate which optional fractions they accept, with preformatted wording prohibiting major components. If a fraction, "makes up a significant portion of that component" or "carries out the key function of a primary component" it may be objectionable to some but is permissible.

Aid work

Aid work after large natural disasters is considered an important part of their work, though secondary to their preaching effort. Large sums of donated money are used in the affected areas to rebuild communities and provide aid. The focus of relief efforts is primarily on rebuilding Kingdom Halls, and helping fellow members, but assistance is also provided to non-members in need near the area in which they are working. Examples of relief work include that provided to Hutu and Tutsi victims during the Rwandan genocide, to Congo refugees, and after Hurricane Katrina in the United States of America.

The Memorial

Their most important annual event is the commemoration of Jesus' death on behalf of mankind, referred to as the Memorial or the Lord's Evening Meal. It is held after sundown on the day corresponding to the date of the Hebrew Passover (Nisan 14 on the Hebrew calendar). This is usually in March or April on the first full moon after the spring equinox. The event is open to anyone. Invitations are given out in communities about a month before. Over 17 million attended the Memorial worldwide in 2007.

During the event, unleavened bread and wine, emblems symbolizing Jesus' perfect body and shed blood, are passed to each person in attendance. Only those members who profess to be of the anointed 144,000 partake of the emblems. They believe that those who partake unworthily of the emblems will be judged by Jehovah.

Demographics

Jehovah's Witnesses have an active presence in most countries, though they do not form a large part of the population of any country. Brazil, Mexico, and the United States are the only countries where the number of active Witness publishers exceeds half a million. As of February 2008, Jehovah's Witnesses have an average of 7.2 million members actively involved in preaching. To be counted, an individual must be approved as a minister and report at least 15 minutes in the ministry. In 2007, these reports indicated a total of over 1.3 billion hours. Since the mid-1990s, the number of peak publishers has increased from 4.5 million to 7.2 million., though there has been a decline in growth rates, from over 8% per annum in the mid 1970s, to 5% per annum in the mid 1990s, to about 2%–3% per annum since 1999. The official published membership statistics only include those who have reported preaching activity. 'Inactive' and disfellowshipped members, and any who have either not been involved in preaching or have not submitted reports. In the United States, about one-third of children among Jehovah’s Witnesses still identify themselves with the religion as adults.

Main publications used

The publishing arm of Jehovah's Witnesses, known as the Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, engages in extensive publication work, with the production of books, brochures, and other media. The most widely spread are:

• New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. (1961, revised 1984) A translation of the Bible by the New World Bible Translation Committee. It extensively uses the name Jehovah, an English version of the Hebrew Tetragrammaton, also replacing the Greek word for "Lord" some 237 times in the New Testament. It is available in 72 languages.
• The Watchtower. A 32-page magazine, published since 1879, for use in the public ministry; published twice per month, on the 1st and a 15th of each month. From 2008 onward, the issue published on the 15th of each month is a Study Edition for use at the Watchtower Study and not used in the public ministry. It is available in 171 languages.
• Awake!. A 32-page general interest magazine, with a wider scope than the Watchtower, usually including articles on science, nature, and geography, usually with a religious slant. Earlier titles for this magazine were The Golden Age (1919–1937) and Consolation (1937–1946). Until 2005, Awake! was published on the 8th and 22nd of each month; from 2006 onwards, one issue is published each month. It is available in 81 languages.
• What Does the Bible Really Teach? (2005) The textbook used to conduct Bible studies. It is available in 176 languages.

Criticism and controversies

Jehovah's Witnesses have attracted controversy over issues surrounding their Bible translation, doctrines, handling of sexual abuse cases, and alleged coercion of members.

References

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2. Oxford English Dictionary: "Jehovah's Witness: a member of a fundamentalist millenary sect" (emphasis added)
3. "Jehovah's Witness at a glance". BBC - Religion & Ethics. BBC. Retrieved 29 December 2008.
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5. Elliott, Joel. Encyclopedia of Religion and Society. Hartford Institute for Religion Research, Harftord Seminary.
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7. ^ Botting, Heather (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 60–75. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
8. A.H. MacMillan, Faith on the March, 1957, as cited by Raymond Franz, In Search of Christian Freedom, Commentary Press, 2007, page 190: "Rutherford wanted to unify the preaching work and, instead of having each individual give his own opinion ... gradually Rutherford himself began to be the main spokesman for the organization."
9. "Membership and Publishing Statistics". Office of Public Information of Jehovah's Witnesses.
10. Evans, Allan S. (1973). What man Believes: A study of the World’s Great Faiths. McGraw-Hill Ryerson. p. 424. ISBN 0-07-077440-4. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
11. "Armenia violates Jehovah's Witnesses' rights-Amnesty". Reuters. 16 January 2008.
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15. Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 7. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
16. Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed (2nd ed.). University of Toronto Press. p. 1.
17. House, H. Wayne (1992). Charts of Cults, Sects, and Religious Movements. Zondervan. ISBN 978-0310385516.
18. "Jehovah's Witnesses case heads to B.C. court". Vancouver Sun. 1 April 1 2007. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
19. J Guicho and, I Mitchell (2006). "Medical emergencies in children of orthodox Jehovah's Witness families: Three recent legal cases, ethical issues and proposals for management". Paediatrics & Child Health, Canadian Pediatric Society. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
20. Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Atlanta: Commentary Press. p. 754. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
21. Botting, Heather (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
22. ^ Holden, A. (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement. Routledge. p. 18.
23. The Watch Tower from 1879–1916 available online by issue and by article from the seven-volume Watch Tower Reprints, published by the Watch Tower Society in 1920
24. "Prospectus". Zion's Watch Tower. 1 July 1879.
25. Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. p. 576.
26. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 4". In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press.
27. "A Time of Testing (1914-1918)". Jehovah's Witnesses - Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. p. 64.
28. ^ Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0802079733.
29. ^ Franz, Raymond (2002). "Chapter 3". Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press.
30. Penton, M. J. Apocalypse Delayed. p. 52. If the directors were not legally elected, neither were the Society's three officers: Rutherford, Pierson, and Van Amburgh. In order to have been chosen officers in January 1917, they would have had to have been legally elected directors. Yet, they had not been, and hence, by Rutherford's own logic, did not hold office legally.
31. A.H. MacMillan. Faith on the March (PDF). p. 80. Retrieved 2007-10-25.
32. The Finished Mystery at Google Books
33. Template:PDFlink
34. Chryssides, George D. (April 19, 2001). "Unrecognized charisma? A study of four charismatic leaders". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
35. "The Revelation". The Finished Mystery. pp. 247–253.
36. Rutherford et al. vs. the United States (1918). See also "Application for Executive Clemency". 1919., "Reversal by Appeals Court" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-30.
37. M.J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. pp. 55–56.
38. Apocalypse Delayed at Google Books
39. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. pp. 647–654.
40. Rutherford gives his defense against the charges in the tract The Case of the IBSA
41. "Distress of Nations: Cause, Warning, Remedy" (PDF). The Golden Age: 712–718. 1920. Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
42. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. pp. 72–77.
43. ^ Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. p. 144.
44. Gross, Edmond C. (2001). "Chapter 24". Jehovah's Witnesses: Their Claims, Doctrinal Changes, and Prophetic Speculation. What Does the Record Show?. Xulon Press. ISBN 193123230X.
45. Your Will Be Done on Earth. Watchtower. 1958. p. 337.
46. Jehovah's Witnesses in the Divine Purpose. Watchtower. 1959. p. 313.
47. Penton, M.J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 61-62. ISBN 0802079733, 9780802079732. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)
48. The Harp of God. 1921. pp. 231–236. states that "the Lord's second presence dates from 1874."
49. The Harp of God at Google Books
50. "Watchtower". Watchtower. 1922: 71. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) and Prophecy. 1930. pp. 65–66. supported 1874.
51. Eschatological changes during this period are documented in Thomas Daniels. Historical Idealism and Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF). pp. 3–37. Retrieved 2006-02-01.
52. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. pp. 84–85.
53. "United States Holocaust Memorial Museum". {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |accessmonthday= ignored (help); Unknown parameter |accessyear= ignored (|access-date= suggested) (help)
54. Hesse, Hans (2001). Persecution and Resistance of Jehovah's Witnesses During the Nazi Regime. p. 10.
55. American Civil Liberties Union (1941). The Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses (PDF). pp. 1–24. Retrieved 2008-12-30.
56. Harrison, Barbara (1978). Visions of Glory. pp. 185, 281.
57. Persian, Jayne (2005). "The Banning of Jehovah's Witnesses in Australia in 1941" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite web}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
58. Adelaide Company of Jehovah's Witnesses, Inc. v. The Commonwealth of Australia, 67 116, 124. (PDF, 68MB)
59. Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 86.
60. Franz, Raymond (2007). Crisis of Conscience. Commentary Press. p. 72.
61. Franz, Raymond (2007). "Chapter 8". In Search of Christain Freedom. Commentary Press.
62. Penton, M. J. (1997). Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 89.
63. Life Everlasting in Freedom of the Sons of God. Watchtower Society. 1966.
64. "How Much Longer Will It Be?". Awake!: 17–20. 1966. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
65. "Awake!". Watchtower Society. October 8, 1968: 14. Does this mean that the above evidence positively points to 1975 as the complete end of this system of things? Since the Bible does not specifically state this, no man can say...If the 1970s should see intervention by Jehovah God to bring an end to a corrupt world drifting toward ultimate disintegration, that should surely not surprise us. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
66. Franz, Raymond. "Chapter 9". Crisis of Conscience.
67. "Our Kingdom Ministry". 1974. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
68. Franz, Raymond. "1975—The Appropriate Time for God to Act". Crisis of Conscience (PDF). pp. 237–253. Retrieved 2006-07-27.
69. Singelenberg, Richard (1989). "The '1975'-prophecy and its impact among Dutch Jehovah's Witnesses". Sociological Analysis (1): 23–40. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |vol= ignored (|volume= suggested) (help) Notes a nine percent drop in total publishers (door-to-door preachers) and a 38 per cent drop in pioneers (full-time preachers) in the Netherlands.
70. Stark and Iannoccone (1997). "The Journal of Contemporary Religion" (PDF): 142–143. Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite journal}}: |article= ignored (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
71. Dart, John (January 30, 1982). "Defectors Feel 'Witness' Wrath: Critics say Baptism Rise Gives False Picture of Growth". Los Angeles Times. p. B4. Cited statistics showing a net increase of publishers worldwide from 1971–1981 of 737,241, while baptisms totaled 1.71 million for the same period.
72. "The Watchtower". March 15, 1980: 17. With the appearance of the book Life Everlasting—in Freedom of the Sons of God, ... considerable expectation was aroused regarding the year 1975. ... there were other statements published that implied that such realization of hopes by that year was more of a probability than a mere possibility. It is to be regretted that these latter statements apparently overshadowed the cautionary ones and contributed to a buildup of the expectation already initiated. ... persons having to do with the publication of the information ... contributed to the buildup of hopes centered on that date. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
73. Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. Watchtower. 1993. p. 106.
74. 1977 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 258.
75. ^ Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. pp. 211–252. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
76. Watchtower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. 2007 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. pp. 4, 6.
77. Botting, Heather & Gary (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-6545-7.
78. Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 123. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
79. Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. p. 153. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
80. Franz, Raymond (2007). In Search of Christian Freedom. Commentary Press. pp. 154–164. ISBN 0-914675-17-6.
81. Penton, M. J. Penton. Apocalypse Delayed. University of Toronto Press. p. 165.
82. ""The Things Revealed Belong to Us"". The Watchtower: 10–15. May 15, 1986.
83. "Flashes of Light - Great and Small". The Watchtower: 17, 18. May 15, 1995.
84. "Light 1, page 64". 1930.
85. "Light 1, page 106".
86. Holden, A. (2002). Cavorting With the Devil: Jehovah’s Witnesses Who Abandon Their Faith (PDF). Department of Sociology, Lancaster University, Lancaster LA1 4YL, UK. p. Endnote .
87. ^ Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. 1993. pp. 144–145.
88. "The Bible Answers Vital Questions of Our Day". The Watchtower. November 15, 1999.
89. Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1019.
90. "Jesus Christ—God's Beloved Son". The Watchtower: 13. June 1 1988. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
91. Holden, A (2002). Jehovah's Witnesses: portrait of a contemporary movement. Routledge. p. 180.
92. ""His Vital Place in God's Purpose" and "Chief Agent of life"". Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. Watchtower. pp. 60–61.
93. Reasoning From the Scriptures. 1989. pp. 89–90.
94. "Angels: How They Affect Us". The Watchtower. Jehovah's Witnesses. 15 January 2006.
95. Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. pp. 393–394.
96. Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 1. 1988. pp. 12, 126.
97. What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. p. 32.
98. What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 87, 216.
99. "Remaining Organized for Survival Into the Millennium". Watchtower: 19. 1989. Only Jehovah's Witnesses, those of the anointed remnant and the "great crowd", as a united organization under the protection of the Supreme Organizer, have Scriptural hope of surviving the impending end of this doomed system now dominated by Satan the Devil. When will that day of judgment come? The bible states in several scriptures that only God himself knows when he will execute his judgment. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
100. "Will Cruelty Ever End?". The Watchtower: 5. 1 April 2007.
101. The Watchtower. 1 September 1945. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
102. "Question From Readers". The Watchtower: 31. 1 October 1983.
103. What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 33–36.
104. ""Death Is to Be Brought to Nothing"". Watchtower: 19–24. 1998. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
105. What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. p. 214.
106. "Is There LIFE After Death?". The Watchtower]]. 2005. Retrieved 2008-09-14. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
107. "Hell—Eternal Torture or Common Grave?". The Watchtower: 6. 1993. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
108. Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. p. 189.
109. Insight on the Scriptures. Vol. 2. 1988. p. 1004. The...Scriptures show 'soul' to be a person, an animal, or the life that a person or an animal enjoys.
110. The Bible—God's Word or Man's?. Watchtower.
111. A Book for All People. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005.
112. "How Are Jehovah's Witnesses Different?". The Watchtower. Watchtower: 629. 15 October 1974.
113. "Obedience to the Good News a Way of Life". The Watchtower. Watchtower: 618. 15 October 1977.
114. "Science, Religion, and the Search for Truth". The Watchtower. Watchtower: 6. 1 September 1994.
115. The Watchtower. Watchtower: 587, 590. 1 October 1967. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
116. What Does the Bible Really Teach?. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2005. pp. 51, 201–204.
117. "European High Court Upholds Right to Preach in Greece". The Watchtower. Watchtower: 28–29. 1 Septebmer 1993. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
118. "Poland". 1994 Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses. Watchtower. p. 206.
119. "House-to-House Preaching —An Identifying Mark". Jehovah's Witnesses: Proclaimers of God's Kingdom. 1993. p. 570.
120. "Showing Lifesaving Neighbor Love". The Watchtower: 17. May 15, 1981.
121. "Social Ministry—How It Affects People". The Watchtower: 6. January 15, 1987.
122. "How the True Church Helps". The Watchtower: 426. July 15, 1971.
123. "Is There More than One Way of Being a Christian". The Watchtower: 647. November 1, 1966.
124. Botting, Heather (1984). The Orwellian World of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 52. ISBN 0-8029-2537-4. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
125. Chryssides, G.D. (1999). Exploring New Religions. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 103.
126. "Why Living a Godly Life Brings Happiness". Knowledge that Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower. 1995. p. 118.
127. Knowledge That Leads to Everlasting Life. Watchtower. 1995. p. 120.
128. Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 280. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
129. "The Bible's Viewpoint What Does It Mean to Be the Head of the House?". Awake!: 26. July 8 2004. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
130. Penton, M. James (1997). Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses. University of Toronto Press. p. 112. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3.
131. "Appendix: How to Treat a Disfellowshipped person". Keep Yourselves in God's Love. Jehovah's Witnesses. 2008. pp. 198–202.
132. Watchtower 2/1/52 p. 69 Is Interfaith God's Way?"JEHOVAH is a God of truth. He does not compromise with error"
133. Awake! 11/22/89 p. 22 "this willingness to compromise has become more pronounced because of a growing acceptance of the idea that all "Christian" religions have an inherent God-given unity."
134. What Does The Bible Really Teach? chap. 15 p. 145 par. 3 Worship That God Approves | "3 ... Many people believe that all religions are pleasing to God, but the Bible does not teach that. It is not even enough just to claim to be a Christian. Jesus said: "Not everyone saying to me, 'Lord, Lord,' will enter into the kingdom of the heavens, but the one doing the will of my Father who is in the heavens will." "
135. Watchtower 12/15/53 pp. 741–742 Should the Religions Unite? "While these councils may provide a strong political lobby, or aid in mission work, they have no unity of doctrine, no message for the world, no direction to the kingdom of God as earth's only hope, no counsel for the Christian conscience in the present crisis. They are merely "United Nations" of religions, 'agencies of cooperation' between widely divided denominations, but are not organizations that could bring their members to a unity of correct belief."
136. "What Does God Require of Us? Lesson 11; Beliefs and Customs That Displease God" Jehovah's Witnesses Official Web Site, ©2006 Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania.
137. Awake! November 22, 1976 issue "A National 'Day of Thanks'-The Dream and the Reality
138. School 1983 brochure 'Holidays and Celebrations'
139. School 1983 brochure 'Holidays and Celebrations'
140. ""Salvation Belongs to Jehovah"". Watchtower: 21. 2002. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
141. "Watchtower" 11/15/00 p. 15 par. 18 Christians Find Happiness in Serving "There are many people who claim to worship God, but their worship is really directed to the gods of nationalism, tribalism, wealth, self, or some other deity"
142. "Watchtower" 2/15/67 p. 115 par. 15 "(Dan. 2:44) "Thus the nationalistic governments on which the various religious systems depend so heavily for support are destined to be crushed by God's heavenly kingdom."
143. Watchtower 11/1/90 p. 24 par. 5 " … what if part of the tax money is used to finance something we disagree with, such as free abortions, blood banks, or programs that conflict with our neutral views? We still pay all our taxes. It is the authority that must take responsibility for how it uses the tax money."
144. "God and Caesar". Watchtower: 9. 1996. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
145. Penton, M.J. (1997) Apocalypse Delayed (p. i)
146. Muramoto, O. (January 6, 2001). "Bioethical aspects of the recent changes in the policy of refusal of blood by Jehovah's Witnesses". BMJ. 322: 37–39. doi:10.1136/bmj.322.7277.37. PMID 11141155.
147. Bowman, R.M, Beisner, E.C., Ehrenborg, Rev. T. (1995) Jehovah's Witnesses, (p. 13). Zondervan.
148. The Watchtower, June 15, 2000 p. 30. Sniesinski; et al. (2007). "Coagulopathy After Cardiopulmonary Bypass in Jehovah's Witness Patients: Management of Two Cases Using Fractionated Components and Factor VIIa" (PDF). Anesthesia & Analgesia. 104: 763. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3. Retrieved 2008-12-30. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
149. Durable Power of Attorney form, published by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania, January 2001 p. 1, "I accept all fractions derived from any primary component of blood." Examples of permitted fractions are: Interferon, Immune Serum Globulins and Factor VIII; preparations made from Hemoglobin such as PolyHeme and Hemopure. Examples of permitted procedures involving the medical use of one's own blood include: Cell Salvage, Hemodilution, Heart-Lung Machine, Dialysis, Epidural Blood Patch, Plasmapheresis, Labeling or Tagging of Blood and Platelet Gel (Autologous). See November 2006 Our Kingdom Ministry, pp. 5–6
150. Awake! August 2006 box on P. 11
151. Awake! 6/8/89 p. 30 From Our Readers "By no means do Jehovah's Witnesses ignore the plight of others when disasters occur. Previous articles have demonstrated how willing Jehovah's Witnesses are to assist their neighbors during such times. See, for example, the article entitled "The Levee Has Broken!" (October 8, 1986) We thus endeavor to "work what is good toward all, but especially toward those related to us in the faith." (Galatians 6:10)
152. Awake! 6/06 p. 19 Heeding the Warnings Made a Difference "This group cares for the Louisiana area, which took the brunt of Hurricane Katrina. Of the 2,700 homes of Witnesses needing repair there, work on 1,119 had been completed by the middle of February, so a huge task was still facing that relief committee. Again, neighbors and families with dire need were also helped."
153. Sniecinski, Roman M. (2007). "Christianity in Action: Amid Turmoil". Watchtower. 104. Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania: 763. doi:10.1213/01.ane.0000250913.45299.f3. Retrieved 2005-12-04. Since 1994, Jehovah's Witnesses in Europe alone have sent more than 190 tons of food, clothing, medicine, and other relief supplies to the Great Lakes region of Africa to fellow Jehovah's Witnesses {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
154. "Awake!". 2006: 14–19. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
155. "What Does the Bible Really Teach?", Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania (2005), p. 206.
156. Yearbook of Jehovah's Witnesses, 1996–2008
157. Grundy, Paul. "Facts about truth and Jehovah's Witnesses".
158. "U.S. Religious Landscape Survey Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic". Pew Forum on Religion & Public Life. 2008: 9, 30. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
159. "Our Kingdom Ministry 1/06 p. 1 "The Bible Teach Book—Our Primary Bible Study Aid" … "publishers are encouraged to begin using it immediately to start and conduct Bible studies."

Further reading

Books

• Apocalypse Delayed: The Story of Jehovah's Witnesses by M. James Penton. Penton, professor emeritus of history at University of Lethbridge and a former member of the religion, examines the history of Jehovah's Witnesses, and their doctrines. Read selections from: Apocalypse Delayed: the Story of Jehovah's Witnesses University of Toronto Press. ISBN 0-8020-7973-3 (Canada, 1998) (Google book search)
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Portrait of a Contemporary Religious Movement by Andrew Holden. An academic study on the sociological aspects of Jehovah's Witnesses phenomenon. Publisher: Routledge; 1st edition 2002, ISBN 978–0415266109. 224 pages.
• Jehovah's Witnesses—Proclaimers of God's Kingdom (1993) by Watch Tower Bible and Tract Society of Pennsylvania. Official history of the development of the beliefs, practices, and organizational structure of Jehovah's Witnesses. 750 pages.
• A People for His Name: A History of Jehovah's Witnesses and an Evaluation by Tony Wills, (2006) 2nd edition. (The first edition was published under the pseudonym Timothy White.) He explores the Witnesses' doctrinal growth and shifts and notes schisms from the main body. 300 pages. ISBN 978–1-4303–0100–4 Selections from Google Books

External links

Official sites

• Jehovah's Witnesses: Watchtower Society Official Web Site
• Jehovah's Witnesses: Office of Public Information and Archives
• Official Jehovah’s Witnesses website for distribution of publications

Other sites

• BBC Religion: Jehovah's Witnesses
• Strictly Genteel Theocratic Resources – Scans of complete books and booklets from Russell's era to Knorr's.
• 'Knocking' – An independently made documentary about Jehovah's Witnesses. Sample Trailer
• JW Brothers- (Videos, Audios and News of Worldwide Association of Jehovah’s Witnesses)

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• Antitrinitarianism
• Jehovah's Witnesses
• Premillennialism
• Restorationism