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Homosexual transsexual is a controversial term used by some behavioural scientists, and U. S. federal case law to describe a class of transsexual person with a "homosexual" sexual orientation. Proponents primarily use this term to describe transwomen (male-to-female transsexual people) who are attracted to men, though they sometimes use it to describe transmen (female-to-male transsexual people) who are attracted to women. The term "homosexual" is controversial because it defines transsexual sexuality based on a person's sex assignment at birth. Critics of the term define transsexual sexuality based on a person's gender identity and describe these people as "heterosexual". It is also used in a theory due to Ray Blanchard in a way that is considered scientifically questionable by many behavioral scientist.
While the term "homosexual transsexual" is of mid 20th century origin, various peoples from around the world and in different eras have been identified as analogous to the concept. In Arabic these transwomen known as Mukhannathun, Native American's called such people"two-spirit",In South Asia the word is Hijra's, and in thailand the word is kathoey. All of these groups are attested to in written and oral records long before the coinage of the term homosexual transsexual. However the way they are described in historical sources overlaps with the descriptions given for this group in our time.
The concept of a taxonomy based on transsexual sexuality was first proposed by Magnus Hirschfeld in 1923, and codified by Harry Benjamin in the Benjamin Scale in 1966. Kurt Freund proposed two types of cross-gender identity in 1982, based on his observation that gender identity disorder is different for homosexual males and heterosexual males. Published reports measure a "homosexual transsexual" on the Kinsey Scale at 5-6. Researchers have found several characteristics that homosexual transsexuals tend to have in common. Characteristics such as social class, and age when applying for sex reassignment, recent immigration, and or non-Caucasian race, childhood behavior problems, growing up in broken homes. They were also found to have more gender variant behavior, to appear have a more convincing cross-gender appearance, and function better post transition than non-homosexual transsexuals.
This and related terms have been regarded as scientifically questionable and legally controversial. The controversial case of Geovanni Hernandez-Montiel v. Immigration and Naturalization Service in 2000 resulted in "gay men with female sexual identities" being defined as a "particular social group" which can apply for asylum in the United States. Since 2003 this term has been strongly associated with Ray Blanchard's controversial theory. Blanchard's theory states that all non-homosexual transsexuals are motivated to change sex by erotic interest in self-feminization. Many sexologist have found this use of terminlolgy to be scientifically questionable, and avoid it out of consideration of the feelings of the people it labels. Harry Benjamin, who coined the word transsexual, wrote that the use of the term homosexual to describe a transsexual who is attracted to men is proper if anatomy is considered but not if psyche is considered, and only remains proper after Sex reassignment surgery in the anatomical sense if one is being pedantic.
History of the concept
Sexologist, psychiatrist and lawyer Richard Green argues that since the term "transsexual" was only coined in the 20th century, it is necessary to examine historical specifics to identify transsexuality in history, and distinguish it from other roles that are described as "change of sex", such as homosexuality and heterosexual cross-dressing customs. Green describes the cultural roles of groups such as the Two-Spirit, Hijra, Khanith and Kathoey, arguing that (aside from cultural and language details) these groups manifest homosexual transsexualism: their members were (or are) generally attracted to the same sex and are mentally indistinguishable from modern western transsexuals.
The exact cultural role of two spirits varied from tribe to tribe but in all cases Green writes about they are oriented towards men. For example Green wrote "Berdache was the term for those who behaved like women. Berdaches in the Yuma culture married men and had no children of their own. The tribe also included women who passed for men, dressed like men, and married women."
The Kanith or Mukhannath of pre and post Islamic Arabia are less well known. These were transsexual or transgender individuals of the Muslim faith and Arab extraction who were present in Medina and Mecca during and after the time of Muhammad. Ibn Abd Al-Barh Al-Tabaeen, a companion of Aisha Umm ul-Mu'min'in who knew the same mukhannath as Mohammed, describes them... "The mukhannath is (also?) the one who looks so much like a woman physically that he resembles women in his softness, speech, appearance, accent and thinking. If he is like this, he would have no desire for women and he would not notice anything about them. This is one of those who have no interest in women who were permitted to enter upon women." In spite of this it is notable that one of the Mukhannath of Medina during Muhammad's time had married a woman.
The Kathoey of Thailand are also similarly described. "Kathoey" is not a direct equivalent of "transwoman" and connotes that the person is a type of male. "Kathoey" has also been used to refer to effeminate homosexual males. However in the case of transwomen other terms such as "phuying praphet thi song" meaning "second type of woman" are also used. Thai Kathoey have been known to use all these terms to describe themselves.
The Hijra of India and Pakistan are another well known example of non-western transwomen. Like the above named groups they are distinguished from a young age by conspicuous effeminacy as boys. They are generally oriented towards and seek sex with masculine males. The Hijra themselves do not consider themselves to be truly male or female, instead belonging to a third gender.
All of the above named groups have in common early effeminacy, adulthood femininity and attraction to masculine males. They are also present in historical records going back to ancient times. In part, because of this history, homosexual sexual orientation has been used to partially define the "classic", "primary", "nuclear" or "true" transsexual. Prior to the mid 1990's due to the heteronormative bias of many psychologists, transsexual people who did not fit into this category were often screened from receiving hormones and sex reassignment surgery.
Description by Western science
The concept of a taxonomy based on transsexual sexuality was first proposed by Magnus Hirschfeld in 1923, and codified by Harry Benjamin in the Benjamin Scale in 1966. Kurt Freund proposed two types of cross-gender identity in 1982, based on his observation that gender identity disorder is different for homosexual males and heterosexual males. Published reports measure a "homosexual transsexual" at a Kinsey Scale 5-6 or a Modified Androphilia Scale 9.86±2.37.Dorner found that when injected with Premarin homosexual transsexual men showed an increased luteinizing hormone and follicle stimulating hormone response compared to heterosexual or bisexual male-to-female transsexuals.
Sexual activity
Frank Leavitt and Jack C. Berger further categorized homosexual transsexuals by three patterns of sexual activity in how they used their penis. In their study 44% were sexually inactive, 19% avoided use of their penis during sex and 37% derived pleasure from using their penis during sex. Each group showed varying levels of masculinity and emotional disturbance in development. Leavitt and Berger found that transsexuals in the avoidant group are different from those in the other two groups. They fit the description of the "nuclear transsexual". They had a strong cross gender identification, wanted female anatomy, had never married and little to no sexual activity with females. Of all the subgroups this group had the least comorbid psychopathologies. The transsexuals in the pleasure group behaved sexually in ways that were "classically homosexual". They were more likely than those in the avoidant group to have had sexual experience with females. They also rated higher on a test of general fetishism. Other than this, transsexuals in the pleasure group were similar to the description of a "nuclear transsexual". They found that transsexuals in the inactive group had characteristics which most differed from that of the "nuclear transsexual", such as strong heterosexual orientations (as determined from psychological testing), and fetish histories. "The pattern exhibited generally conforms to that exhibited by heterosexual transsexuals." The inactive group was found to share little with the other groups of transsexuals other than a stated sexual interest in males. Leavitt and Berger also mentioned studies by Blanchard which suggest that heterosexual transsexuals will adjust their life stories to ensure that they get sex reassignment surgery.
Prostitution
In The Man Who Would Be Queen, J. Michael Bailey said that the homosexual transsexuals he studied are comfortable with prostitution, that they have a masculine sexual appetite, but lust after men. In "The Transsexual Phenomenon", Harry Benjamin writes that "Other transsexuals find prostitution a useful profession for emotional as well as practical reasons..." Benjamin goes on to note "How much more can his femininity be reaffirmed than by again and again attracting normal, heterosexual, and unsuspecting men and even being paid for rendering sex service as a woman?"
Socioeconomic factors
Researchers have found several demographic features that homosexual transsexuals tend to have in common. Ken Zucker, and Yolanda Smith independantly found that homosexual transsexuals are of lower average IQ and social class as compared to non-homosexual transsexuals. The homosexual transsexuals are more likey to have recent immigrant status, non-intact families, non-Caucasian race, and childhood behavior problems Bailey found that most homosexual transsexuals learn to live on the streets, resorting to prostitution, or shoplifting.
D.F. MacFarlane studied transsexuals in Australia and New Zealand. MacFarlane found that in New Zealand that 90% of the homosexual transsexual prostitutes were Māori, an ethnic group who are only 9% of the overall population. In The Man Who Would Be Queen J. Michael Bailey notes that about 60% of homosexual transsexuals he studied in Chicago were Latina or black; in his studies of gay males only 20% were non-white. Bailey quoted the opinions of two of his subjects who attributed the difference to genetics, or inflexible gender roles in their respective cultures. MacFarlane similarly concluded that culture influenced the number of Māori homosexual transsexuals he observed.
Fraternal birth order effect
Research on the causes of homosexual transsexualism, transsexualism, and homosexuality overlap to a large degree. The etiology of transsexualism concerns the causes of transsexuality in general, including the theory that transsexualism is caused by differences in specific areas of the brain, while relationships between biology and sexual orientation have been studied in depth as possible causes of homosexuality.
Research specifically related to "homosexual transsexuals" lead Blanchard and Zucker to the conclusion that birth order has some influence over sexual orientation in biological males. This phenomena is called the "fraternal birth order effect". Richard Green found "Homosexual male-to-female transsexuals have a later than expected birth order and more older brothers than other subgroups of male-to-female transsexuals. Each older brother increases the odds that a male transsexual is homosexual by 40%." Notably Green did not find a higher incidence of homosexuality in the younger brothers of homosexual transsexuals. In a more recent study of homosexual transsexual males in Korea Kenneth Zucker found no older brother effect. Zucker attributes this to the preference for males in Korean society causing parents to stop having children once they have a boy. Therefore all male children are less likely to have older brothers and hence no fraternal birth order effect is observed. According to Bailey's interpretation of Blanchard's theory the causes of homosexual transsexuality are extreme examples of the causes of homosexuality in males.
Blanchard's theory
Main article: Blanchard, Bailey, and Lawrence theorySexologist Ray Blanchard defined this category based on testing or self-report,and noting that self-report is not always reliable. Morgan, Blanchard and other researchers have stated that many "non-homosexual" transsexuals systematically distort their life stories because "non-homosexuals" were often screened out as candidates for surgery and because some see "homosexual transsexual" as a more socially desirable diagnosis. Key characteristics include conspicuous cross-gender behavior from childhood through adulthood, and a "homosexual" sexual orientation. Blanchard also contends that non-homosexual transsexual women (as well as all other non-homosexual male gender dysphorics) have a condition called autogynephilia and are aroused by the idea or image of themselves as women. Blanchard found in his studies that homosexual transsexuals were younger when applying for sex reassignment, reported a stronger cross-gender identity in childhood, had a more convincing cross-gender appearance, and functioned psychologically better than "non-homosexual" transsexuals. A lower percentage of the homosexual transsexuals reported being (or having been) married and sexually aroused while cross-dressing. Studies have variously found that between 10% and 36% of homosexual transsexuals report a history of sexual arousal to crossdressing. Bentler found 23%, while Freund reported 31%;
Previous taxonomies, or systems of categorizeation, used the terms "classic transsexual" or "true transsexual," terms once used in differential diagnoses. He also found them to be comparatively short and light in proportion to their height than non-homosexuals. Independent research done by Smith confirmed most of Blanchards findings, except for the difference in height-weight ratio.
Controversy
This phenomena has also turned up as a controversial point of law in the United states. In 2000 judge A. Wallace Tashima defined "gay men with female sexual identities" as being a "particular social group" which was persecuted in Mexico and could therefore apply for asylum in the United States. Critics of this action by the 9th circuit court feared that a "torrent" of LGBT persons would seek asylum on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. This precedent has been used successfully 380 times by "gay men with female sexual identities" from Mexico and other Latin American countries. In the SFweekly article "Border Crossers" Lauren Smiley describes women who have received assylum under this ruling as "transgender", "transsexual", or "trans-latina". Smiley's article has been criticized in an Op-Ed By Robert Haaland, Cecelia Chung, Alexandra Byerly, and Tita Aida in the San Francisco Bay Guardian. In their opinion Smiley's article was "Jerry Springer-like journalism masquerading as a feature article". The Op-Ed also states that Smiley notes that judges have the discretion to grant assylum due to persecution because of gender identity. The Op-Ed in the San Francisco Bay Guardian also criticized the article for it's focus on sex workers, as well as quoting an anti-immigration activist.
Questionably scientific use of terminology
The practice of referring to androphilic transsexuals as homosexual males, or homosexual transsexuals has been called into question by many behavioral scientist over the years. Two noteable ones are Harry Benjamin and Bruce Bagemihl.
In the words of Harry Benjamin in 1966:
....it seems evident that the question "Is the transsexual homosexual?" must be answered "yes" and " no." "Yes," if his anatomy is considered; "no" if his psyche is given preference.
What would be the situation after corrective surgery has been performed and the sex anatomy now resembles that of a woman? Is the "new woman" still a homosexual man? "Yes," if pedantry and technicalities prevail. "No" if reason and common sense are applied and if the respective patient is treated as an individual and not as a rubber stamp.
Many others agree with what Dr. Benjamin wrote about the use of this term one of which is Bruce Bagemihl. Bagemihl writes
...the point of reference for "heterosexual" or "homosexual" orientation in this nomenclature is solely the individual's genetic sex prior to reassignment (see for example, Blanchard et al. 1987, Coleman and Bockting, 1988, Blanchard, 1989). These labels thereby ignore the individual’s personal sense of gender identity taking precedence over biological sex, rather than the other way around.
Bagemihl goes on to take issue with the way this terminology makes it easy to claim transsexuals are really homosexual males seeking to escape from stigma. Leavitt and Berger stated in 1990, "The homosexual transsexual label is both confusing and controversial among males seeking sex reassignment. Critics argue that the term "homosexual transsexual" is "heterosexist", "archaic", and demeaning because it labels people by sex assigned at birth instead of their gender identity. Benjamin, Leavitt, and Berger have all used the term in their own work. John Bancroft also recently expressed regret for having used this terminology, which was standard when he used it, to refer to transsexual women. He says that he now tries to choose his words more sensitively.
See also
References
- Freund K, Nagler E, Langevin R, Zajac A, Steiner B (1974). Measuring feminine gender identity in homosexual males. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 3, Number 3 / May, 1974, pp. 249-260.
- ^ Border Crossers, November 25, 2008 at 2:57pm
- ^ MEX,,3ba9c1119,0.html text of judges decision in Geovanni Hernandez-Montiel v. Immigration and Naturalization Service via UNHCR's ref world
- Person ES, Ovesey L (1974). The Psychodynamics of Male Transsexualism. In Friedman RC, Richart RM, and Vande Wiele LR (eds.) Sex Differences in Behavior, pp. 315-331. John Wiley & Sons, ISBN 9780471280538
- Chivers, ML, Bailey JM (2000). Sexual orientation of female-to-male transsexuals: A comparison of homosexual and non-homosexual types. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 29, Number 3, pp. 259-278.
- Livia A, Hall K (1997). Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender, and Sexuality. Oxford University Press, ISBN 9780195104714
- ^ Wahng SJ (2004). Double Cross: Transamasculinity Asian American Gendering in Trappings of Transhood. in Aldama AJ (ed.) Violence and the Body: Race, Gender, and the State. Indiana University Press, ISBN 978025334171X Cite error: The named reference "wahng" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- Bagemihl, Bruce. Biological Exuberance: Animal Homosexuality and Natural Diversity. ISBN 978-0312192396.
{{cite book}}: Check|authorlink=value (help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); External link in|authorlink= - ^ BenjaminQ, Harry. The Transsexual Phenomenon. Chapter 2, Paragraph 16.
{{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help)CS1 maint: location (link) - ^ Green R (1966). "Transsexualism: Mythological, Historical, and Cross-Cultural Aspects". Benjamin H, The Transsexual Phenomenon. Julian Press ASIN B0007HXA76.
{{cite web}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in:|publisher=(help) - ^ Rowson, Everett K. (October 1991). "The Effeminates of Early Medina" (PDF). Journal of the American Oriental Society. 111 (4). American Oriental Society: 671–693.
- ^ Al Muqni, Matan. al Sharh al Kabeer. volume 7 347–348.
{{cite book}}: Unknown parameter|nopp=ignored (|no-pp=suggested) (help)in Arabic - ^ See, for example, In Their Own Words: The Formulation of Sexual and Reproductive Health Behaviour Among Young Men in Bangladesh, Shivananda Khan, Sharful Islam Khan and Paula E. Hollerbach, for the Catalyst Consortium.
- ^ Jackson, Peter (1999). Lady Boys, Tom Boys, Rent Boys: Male and Female Homosexualities in Contemporary Thailand. Google books: Haworth Press. p. 146. ISBN 0789006561.
{{cite book}}: External link in|location= - ^ Hirschfeld M (1923). Die intersexuelle Konstitution. Jarhbuch fuer sexuelle Zwischenstufen. 1923: 3-27, German
- ^ Benjamin H (1966). The Transsexual Phenomenon. The Julian Press ASIN: B0007HXA76
- ^ Freund K, Steiner BW, Chan S (1982). Two types of cross-gender identity. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 1982 Feb;11(1):49-63. Cite error: The named reference "freund1982" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ Lawrence, Anne; Latty, Elizabeth M (April), "Measurement of sexual arousal in postoperative male-to-female transsexuals using vaginal photoplethysmography.", Archives of Sexual Behavior, 34 (2): 135–145, doi:10.1007/s10508-005-1792-z, 1573-2800
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help) - ^ Leavitt, Frank; Berger, Jack C. (October), "Clinical patterns among male transsexual candidates with erotic interest in males", Archives of Sexual Behavior, 19 (5): 491–505, doi:10.1007/BF02442350, 1573-2800
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help) - ^ Cohen-Kettenis, Peggy T. (February 2003). "Gender-Dysphoric Children and Adolescents: A Comparative Analysis of Demographic Characteristics and Behavioral Problems". Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology. 31 (1). Netherlands: Springer Netherlands: 41–53. doi:10.1023/A:1021769215342.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ MacFarlane, D. F. (August 1984). "Transsexual prostitution in New Zealand: Predominance of persons of Maori extraction". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 13 (4). Netherlands: Springer: 301–309. doi:10.1007/BF01541903. Retrieved 2008-02-26.
{{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help) - ^ Smith, Yolanda L.S. (2005-12-15). "Transsexual subtypes: Clinical and theoretical significance" (PDF). Psychiatry Research. 137 (3). Elsevier: 151–160. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2005.01.008. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Bailey JM (2003). "The Man Who Would Be Queen: The Science of Gender-Bending and Transsexualism". Women Who Once Were Boys.Joseph Henry Press, ISBN 0-309-08418-0
- ^ Blanchard R, Clemmensen LH, Steiner BW (1987). Heterosexual and homosexual gender dysphoria. Archives of Sexual Behavior, Volume 16, Number 2 / April, 1987
- ^ Bancroft, John (2008). "Lust or Identity?" (PDF). Archives of Sexual Behavior. 37 (3). Springer: 426–428. doi:10.1007/s10508-008-9317-1. Retrieved January 2009.
{{cite journal}}: Check|authorlink=value (help); Check date values in:|accessdate=(help); Cite has empty unknown parameter:|coauthors=(help); External link in|authorlink= - ^ Benjamin "Transsexual Phenomena" chapter 2
- Serena, Nanda (2000). Gender Diversity:Crosscultural Variations. llinois: Waveland Press. p. 74. ISBN 1 57766 074 9.
- Serena, Nanda (1989). Neither Man Nor Woman: The Hijras of India. Wadsworth. p. 170. ISBN 0534122043, 9780534122041.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help) - Kulick, Don (1998). Travesti: Sex, Gender, and Culture Among Brazilian Transgendered Prostitutes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 269. ISBN 0226461009, 9780226461007.
{{cite book}}: Check|authorlink=value (help); Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); External link in|authorlink= - Life histories of transpeople in Asia, Nun, Thailand uploaded 2/5/2002
- Barrett, Jackson (2007). Transsexual and Other Disorders of Gender Identity: A Practical Guide to Management. Google books: Radcliffe Publishing. p. 298. ISBN 185775719X, 9781857757194.
{{cite book}}: Check|isbn=value: invalid character (help); External link in|location= - ^ Blanchard, Ray (December 1985). "Social desirability response set and systematic distortion in the self-report of adult male gender patients". Archives of Sexual Behavior. 14 (6). Netherlands: Springer. 1573-2800.
{{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ Morgan AJ Jr (1978). Psychotherapy for transsexual candidates screened out of surgery. Archives of Sexual Behavior. 7: 273-282. Cite error: The named reference "morgan1978" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- Dorner G, Rohde W, Schott G, Schnabl C (1983). On the LH response to oestrogen and LH-RH in transsexual men. Experimental and Clinical Endocrinology. 1983 Nov;82(3):257-67.
- ^ Blanchard, Ray; Zucker, Kenneth J. (October), "Birth order and sibling sex ratio in two samples of Dutch gender-dysphoric homosexual males", Archives of Sexual Behavior, 25 (5): 495–514, doi:10.1007/BF02437544
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help) - ^ Zucker, Kenneth J; Blanchard, Ray (October), "Birth order and sibling sex ratio in homosexual transsexual South Korean men: Effects of the male-preference stopping rule", Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 61 (5): 529–533, doi:10.1111/j.1440-1819.2007.01703.x
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ Green, Richard (July), "Birth order and ratio of brothers to sisters in transsexuals", Psychological Medicine, 30 (4): 789–795
{{citation}}: Check date values in:|date=and|year=/|date=mismatch (help) - Bentler P M (1976). "A typology of transsexualism: Gender identity theory and data." Archives of Sexual Behavior 5: 567-584.
- Blanchard R (1985). "Typology of male-to-female transsexualism." Archives of Sexual Behavior, 14, 247-261.
- Blanchard R (1989). "The concept of autogynephilia and the typology of male gender dysphoria." Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 177, 616-623.
- Benjamin H (1966). ""Three different types of transsexual" The Transsexual Phenomenon.". Julian Press ASIN B0007HXA76.
- Blanchard R, Dickey R, Jones CL. Comparison of height and weight in homosexual versus non-homosexual male gender dysphorics. Archives of Sexual Behavior 1995 Oct;24(5):543-54.
- ^ "Sensational trans-bashing at SF Weekly In San Francisco, can't we expect and demand better?" , BY Robert Haaland, Cecelia Chung, Alexandra Byerly, and Tita Aida
- ^ Bagemihl B. Surrogate phonology and transsexual faggotry: A linguistic analogy for uncoupling sexual orientation from gender identity. In Queerly Phrased: Language, Gender, and Sexuality. Anna Livia, Kira Hall (eds.) pp. 380 ff. Oxford University Press ISBN 0195104714
- Leiblum SR, Rosen RC (2000). Principles and Practice of Sex Therapy, Third Edition. ISBN 1-57230-574-6,Guilford Press of New York, c2000.
External links
- "Autogynephilia and the Taxonomy of Gender Identity Disorders in Biological Males" - Ray Blanchard, PhD 2000
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