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See also History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)

From 1918 to 1938, after the break up of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, several million ethnic Bohemian Germans wound up in the Czech Lands of newly created state of Czechoslovakia. Germans lived in Bohemia, a part of the Holy Roman Empire, since the 14th Century (and in some areas from at least the 12th century), mostly in the border regions of Sudetenland (so-called Sudeten Germans). Another German ethnic group, the Carpathian Germans, lived in Slovakia.

History of Sudeten Germans

The end of World War I in 1918 meant the disintegration of the Austro-Hungarian Empire multinational state. The Czechs, numbering about 6.7 million people, demanded a state of their own. They insisted on the traditional boundaries of the Kingdom of Bohemia and Moravia, according to Uti possidetis juris. This would mean that the new Czech state would have defensible mountain boundaries with the neighboring German Empire, but also that the highly industrialized settlement areas of 3 million Sudeten Germans would be separated from Austria and put under Czech control.

After the Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR) was proclaimed on 28 October 1918, Sudeten Germans, claiming the right to self-determination according to the 10th of President Wilson's Fourteen Points, demanded that their homeland areas remain with the Austrian State, which by now had been reduced to the Republic of German Austria. They relied on peaceful opposition to the occupation of Sudetenland by the Czech military, a process that started on 31.10.1918 and was completed on 28.1.1919. Fighting and bloody attacks took place only sporadically, resulting in the deaths of a few dozen Germans.

On 4 March 1919, almost the entire Sudeten German population peacefully demonstrated for their right of self-determination. These demonstrations were accompanied by a one-day general strike on the part of the Germans. The Sudeten German Social Democrat Party, which was the largest party at the time, was responsible for the initiative of carrying out these demonstrations, but it was supported by the bourgeois German parties. These mass demonstrations were put down by the Czech military, involving 54 deaths and well over one hundred injuries.

The Treaty of St. Germain of 10.9.1919 assigned the Sudetenland to Czechoslovakia. The new Czechoslovak state regarded them as a minority. Nevertheless, some 90 percent of them lived in territories in which they themselves represented 90 percent or more of the population.

In 1921, the population of multi-ethnic Czechoslovakia comprised 6.6 million Czechs, 3.2 million Germans, two million Slovaks, 0.7 million Hungarians, half a million Ruthenians (Rusyns), 300,000 Jews, 100,000 Poles as well as Gypsies, Croats and other groups. The Germans thus represented one third of the population of the Czech Lands, and about 23.4 percent of the population of the republic (13.6 million).

The Sudetenland possessed huge chemical works and lignite mines, as well as textile, china, and glass factories. To the west, a solid German triangle surrounding the town Cheb (Eger in German) was most active in pan-German nationalism. The Bohemian Forest extended along the Bavarian frontier to the poor agricultural areas of southern Bohemia.

Moravia contained patches of German settlement to the north and south. More characteristic were the German "language islands" - towns inhabited by German minorities and surrounded by Czechs. Extreme German nationalism was never typical of this area. The German nationalism of the coal-mining region of southern Silesia, 40.5 percent German, was restrained by fear of competition from industry in Germany.

Not all ethnic Germans lived in isolated and well defined areas - because of historical development Czechs and Germans were mixed in many places and at least partial knowledge of second language was quite common.

Since the second half of the 19th century, Czechs and Germans created separate cultural, educational, political and economic institutions which were kept (by both sides) isolated from each other. This separation continued until the end of WWII.

Policies affecting Sudeten Germans

Early policies of the Czechoslovak government, intended to correct social injustice and effect a moderate redistribution of wealth, had fallen more heavily on the German population than on other citizens. In 1919 the government confiscated one-fifth of each individual's holdings in paper currency. Those Germans constituting the wealthiest element in the Czech lands were most affected. The Land Control Act brought the expropriation of vast estates, many belonging to German nobility or large estate owners. Land was allotted primarily to Czech peasants, often landless, who constituted the majority of the agricultural population. Only 4.5 percent of all land allotted by January 1937 was received by Sudeten Germans, whose protests were expressed in countless petitions.

According to the 1920 constitution, German minority rights were to be protected; their educational and cultural institutions were to be preserved in proportion to the population. Local hostilities were engendered, however, by policies intended to protect the security of the Czechoslovak state: border forestland, considered the most ancient Sudeten German national territory, was expropriated for security reasons, and Czech soldiers, policemen and bureaucrats were stationed in areas inhabited only by Germans.

Minority laws were most often applied to create new Czech schools in German districts, sometimes only for immigrated civil servants. Government contracts in the area were frequently carried out by Czech companies. The use of the Czech language in the German-speaking regions was actively promoted, which led, among other incidents, to a "sign war" between the Czech Hikers Club (KCT) and local Germans in the Giant Mountains. Sudeten Germans, in possession of a large number of subsidized local theaters, were required to put these at the disposal of the Czech minority one night a week.

Sudeten German industry, highly dependent on foreign trade and having close financial links with Germany, suffered badly during the Depression, particularly when banks in Germany failed in 1931. Czechs, whose industry was concentrated on the production of essential domestic items, suffered less. By the mid-1930s, unemployment in the Sudetenland was at about five times the level as that in the Czech lands. Tensions between the two groups resulted. Relations between Czechs and Germans were further envenomed when Sudeten Germans were forced to turn to the Czechoslovak government and the small loans bank (Živnostenská banka) for assistance and these authorities often made the hiring of Czechs in proportion to their numbers in the population a condition for aid. Czech workmen, dispatched by the government to engage in public works projects and border fortification in Sudeten German territories, were also resented.

Politics of Sudeten Germans

Sudeten German nationalist sentiment ran high during the early years of the republic (their representatives wished and tried to join Austria, Germany or at least obtain as much autonomy rights as possible). The constitution of 1920 was drafted without Sudeten German representation, and the group declined to participate in the election of the president. Sudeten German political parties pursued an "obstructionist" (or negativist) policy in the Parliament. In 1926, however, Chancellor Gustav Stresemann of Germany, adopting a policy of rapprochement with the West, advised the Sudeten Germans to cooperate actively with the Czechoslovak government. In consequence, most Sudeten German parties (including the German Agrarian Party, the German Social Democratic Party, and the German Christian Socialist Party) changed their policy from negativism to activism, and several German politicians accepted cabinet posts.

At a party conference in Teplitz/Teplice in 1919 the provincial social democratic parties of Bohemia, Moravia and Sudeten-Silesia united to form the Deutsche Sozialdemokratische Arbeiterpartei (DSAP) and elected Josef Seliger chairman. After Seliger's untimely death in 1920, Ludwig Czech became party chairman and in 1938 Wenzel Jaksch. Already in 1936 Jaksch, together with Hans Schuetz of the Christlich Soziale Partei (Christian Social Party)and Gustav Hacker of the Agrarier (Agrarian Party) formed the movement of the Jungaktivisten (Young Activists) which desperately and energetically sought agreement with the Czechoslovak government on a policy that could withstand the Nazi onslaught from within and from outside Czechoslovakia. At simultaneous mass rallies in Tetschen-Bodenbach, Saaz and Giesshuebl in Adlergebirge on April 26, 1936 they demanded of the government equal opportunities in civil service for Germans, financial assistance for German businesses, official acceptance of the German language for public servants in the Sudetenland and measures to reduce unemployment in Sudetenland (one in three were unemployed in the Sudetenland compared to one in five in the rest of the country.) Improvement of the quality of life of the Sudeten Germans was not the only motivation of the Jungaktivists. For Jaksch and his social democratic compatriots it was a question of survival after a possible Nazi takeover. Fate eventually justified his concern: Of some 80,000 social democrats in Czechoslovakia only about 5,000 managed to flee the Nazis. The rest were incarcerated and many of them executed. Those who survived Nazi times were expelled after World War II on the basis of the Beneš decrees.

By 1929 only a small number of Sudeten German deputies - most of them members of the German National Party (propertied classes) and the Sudeten German National Socialist Party (Sudetendeutsche nationalsozialistische Partei) - remained in opposition. Nationalist sentiment flourished, however, among the Sudeten German youth, who belonged to a variety of organizations. These included the older Turnverband and Schutzvereine, the Kameradschaftsbund, the Nazi Volkssport (1929), and the Bereitschaft.

Rise of Nazi party

The Sudeten German nationalists, particularly the Nazis, expanded their activities during the depression years. On 30 January 1933, Hitler was appointed chancellor of Germany. The Czechoslovak government prepared to suppress the Sudeten Nazi Party. In the Autumn of 1933 the Sudeten Nazis dissolved their organization, and the German Nationals were pressured to do likewise. German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis were expelled from local government positions. The Sudeten German population was indignant, especially in nationalist strongholds like Egerland.

On 1 October, 1933, Konrad Henlein with his deputy Karl Hermann Frank, aided by other members of the Kameradschaftsbund, a youth organization of romantic mystical orientation, created a new political organization. The Sudeten German Home Front (Sudetendeutsche Heimatfront) professed loyalty to the Czechoslovak state but championed decentralization. It absorbed most former German Nationals and Sudeten Nazis.

Czechoslovakian Chamber of deputies 1920-1935 - German and German-Hungarian parties or lists

• Ungarische Parteien und sudetendeutscher Wahlblock (1935): Deutsch-demokratische Freiheitspartei, Deutsche Gewerbepartei, Deutschnationale Partei, Sudetendeutsche Landbund, Deutsche Arbeiterpartei, Zipser deutsche Partei, Ungarische Christlichsoziale Partei, Ungarische Nationalpartei

In 1935 the Sudeten German Home Front became the Sudeten German Party (Sudetendeutsche Partei - SdP) and embarked on an active propaganda campaign. In the May election the SdP won more than 60% of the Sudeten German vote. The German Agrarians, Christian Socialists, and Social Democrats each lost approximately one-half of their following. The SdP became the fulcrum of German nationalist forces. The party represented itself as striving for a just settlement of Sudeten German claims within the framework of Czechoslovak democracy. Henlein, however, maintained secret contact with Nazi Germany and received material aid from Berlin. The SdP endorsed the idea of a Führer and mimicked Nazi methods with banners, slogans, and uniformed troops. Concessions offered by the Czechoslovak government, including the installation of exclusively Sudeten German officials in Sudeten German areas and possible participation of the SdP in the cabinet, were rejected. By 1937 most SdP leaders supported Hitler's pan-German objectives.

On 13 March 1938, Austria was annexed by the Third Reich, a union known as the Anschluss. Immediately thereafter many Sudeten Germans threw their support behind Henlein. On 22 March, the German Agrarian Party, led by Gustav Hacker, fused with the SdP. German Christian Socialists suspended their activities on 24 March; their deputies and senators entered the SdP parliamentary club. Only the Social Democrats continued to champion democratic freedom.

Final crisis in 1938

Konrad Henlein met with Hitler in Berlin on 28 March 1938, and was instructed to raise demands unacceptable to the Czechoslovak government. In the Carlsbad Decrees, issued on 24 April, the SdP demanded complete autonomy for the Sudetenland and freedom to profess Nazi ideology. If Henlein's demands had been granted, the Sudetenland would have been in a position to align itself with Nazi Germany.

As the political situation worsened, the security in Sudetenland deteriorated. The region became the site of small-scale clashes between young SdP followers (equipped with arms smuggled from Germany) and police and border forces. In some places the regular army was called in to pacify the situation. Nazi German Propaganda accused the Czech government and Czechs of atrocities on innocent Germans.

On 20 May, Czechoslovakia initiated a so-called "partial mobilization" (literally "special military precaution") in response to rumours of German troop movements. The army had moved into positions on the border. The Western powers tried to pacify the situation and forced the government of Czechoslovakia to comply with most of the Carlsbad Decrees. The SdP, instructed to push towards war, however, escalated the situation with more protests and violence. Especially the Sudetendeutsche Freikorps (paramilitary terrorist groups trained in Germany by SS-instructors) with the help of special Nazi forces overruled some borderline areas and committed many crimes: over 110 Czechs (mostly soldiers and policemen) were killed and over 2,020 Czechoslovak citizens (including German anti-fascists) were kidnapped to Nazi Germany.

In August, UK Prime Minister, Neville Chamberlain, sent Lord Runciman, a faithful appeaser, to Czechoslovakia in order to see if he could obtain a settlement between the Czechoslovak government and the Germans in the Sudetenland. His mission failed because Sudeten German Party refused all conciliating proposals (on Hitler's command).Runciman reported the following to the British government regarding Czech policy towards the German minority in the preceding decades.:

Czech officials and Czech police, speaking little or no German, were appointed in large numbers to purely German districts; Czech agricultural colonists were encouraged to settle on land confiscated under the Land Reform in the middle of German populations; for the children of these Czech invaders Czech schools were built on a large scale; there is a very general belief that Czech firms were favoured as against German firms in the allocation of State contracts and that the State provided work and relief for Czechs more readily than for Germans. I believe these complaints to be in the main justified. Even as late as the time of my Mission, I could find no readiness on the part of the Czechoslovak Government to remedy them on anything like an adequate scale ... the feeling among the Sudeten Germans until about three or four years ago was one of hopelessness. But the rise of Nazi Germany gave them new hope. I regard their turning for help towards their kinsmen and their eventual desire to join the Reich as a natural development in the circumstances.

Britain and France then forced the Czechoslovak government to cede the Sudetenland to Germany (21 September). The Munich Agreement (signed on 29 September) only confirmed the decision and the negotiated details.

Under Nazi rule

As a result, Bohemia and Moravia lost about 38% of their combined area, as well as about 3.25 million Germans and approximately 250,000 Czechs to Germany. Some 250,000 Germans remained on the Czech side, which later became part of the Reich by the establishment of a military protectorate under German governors and the German Army. Then almost all Germans in Czech lands got the German citizenship while most of Germans in Slovakia obtained the citizenship of Slovak state.

In elections held on 4 December 1938, 97.32% of the adult population in Sudetenland voted for the NSDAP (the rest were almost only the Czechs who were allowed to vote as well). About half a million Sudeten Germans joined the Nazi Party - 17.34% of the German population in the Sudetenland (the average in Nazi Germany was 7.85%). Because of their knowledge of the Czech language, many Sudeten Germans were employed in the administration of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia as well as in the Nazi oppressive machinery (Gestapo etc.). The most notable was Karl Hermann Frank: the SS and Police general and Secretary of State in the Protectorate.

During the war German men in Slovakia usually served in Slovak army, however, more than 7,000 were members of paramilitary squads (Freiwillige Schutzstaffeln) and almost 2,000 volunteers joined Waffen-SS. After the beginning of the Slovak National Uprising in late 1944 most of the young Germans in Slovakia were called to German army either Wehrmacht or Waffen-SS, the very young and elderly were organized in Heimatschutz - an equivalent of Volkssturm in Germany. Some of them were ordered in fights against the partisans, some participated in deportations of Slovak Jews. About 120,000 Germans (mostly women and children) were evacuated to Sudetenland and Protectorate.

Expulsion and transfer

After the end of WWII, when the Czechoslovak state was restored, the majority of Germans from Czechoslovakia were expelled. In the months directly following the end of the war "wild" expulsions happened from May till August 1945. These "wild" expulsions were encouraged by polemical speeches made by several Czechoslovak statesmen. The "wild" expulsions were executed by order of local authorities mostly by groups of armed volunteers. However in some causes was initiated or pursued by assistance of regular army. Several thousand died violently during the "wild" expulsion and many more died from hunger and illness as a consequence. The regular transfer according the Potsdam Conference proceeded from 25 January 1946 till October of that year. An estimated 1.6 million ethnic Germans were deported to the American zone of what would become West Germany. An estimated 800,000 were deported to the Soviet zone (in what would become East Germany). Estimates of casualties related to this expulsion range between 20,000 and 200,000 people, depending on source. These casualties include violent deaths and suicides, deaths in internment camps and natural causes.

About 244,000 Germans were allowed to remain in Czechoslovakia, but many Germans who stayed in Czechoslovakia later emigrated to West Germany. Many German refugees from Czechoslovakia are represented by the Sudetendeutsche Landsmannschaft.

In the 2001 census, 39,106 people in the Czech Republic and 5,405 people in the Slovak Republic claimed German ethnicity.

Notable Sudeten Germans

Notes

1. "Prager Tagblatt", Nr. 116 du 18 Mai 1935, Tschechoslowakische Parlamentswahl vom 19. 5. 1935
2. Alena Mípiková und Dieter Segert, Republik unter Druck
3. "Prager Tagblatt", Nr. 116, May 18, 1935, Tschechoslowakische Parlamentswahl vom 19. 5. 1935
4. ^ Zimmermann, Volker: Die Sudetendeutschen im NS-Staat. Politik und Stimmung der Bevölkerung im Reichsgau Sudetenland (1938-1945). Essen 1999. (ISBN 3884747703)
5. Churchill, Winston: The Second World War. Vol. I, The Gathering Storm. 1986. (ISBN 039541055X)
6. Čelovský, Bořivoj: Germanisierung und Genozid. Hitlers Endlösung der tschechischen Frage - deutsche Dokumente 1933-1945. Dresden 2005 (ISBN 8090355013)
7. Šamberger, Zdeněk: Mnichov 1938 v řeči archivních dokumentů. Praha 2002. (ISBN 8085475936)
8. Kárník, Zdeněk: České země v éře první republiky (1918-1938). Díl 3. Praha 2003. (ISBN 8072770306)
9. Král, Václav (ed.): Die Deutschen in der Tschechoslowakei 1933-1947. Dokumentensammlung. Praha 1964.
10. Alfred de Zayas, "Anglo-American Responsibility for the Expulsion of the Germans, 1944-48", (Pittsburg lecture, published in Vardy/Tooley "Ethnic Cleansing in 20th Century Europe" pp. 239-254) p. 243
11. Littlejohn, David: Foreign Legions of Third Reich. 1994
12. Biman, S. - Cílek, R.: Poslední mrtví, první živí. Ústí nad Labem 1989. (ISBN 807047002X)
13. ^ P. WALLACE/BERLIN "Putting The Past To Rest", Time Magazine Monday, Mar. 11, 2002
14. Z. Beneš, Rozumět dějinám. (ISBN 80-86010-60-0)
15. Census 2001 by Czech statistical office
16. Census 2001 by Slovak statistical office

See also

• Occupation of Czechoslovakia
• Beneš decrees

Further reading

• Kopecek, Herman (1996). "Zusammenarbeit and spolupráce: Sudeten German-Czech cooperation in interwar Czechoslovakia". Nationalities Papers. 24 (1): 63–78. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, |laysummary=, and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

• Smelser, Ronald M. (1996). "The expulsion of the Sudeten Germans: 1945-1952". Nationalities Papers. 24 (1): 79–92. {{cite journal}}: Cite has empty unknown parameters: |laydate=, |laysource=, |quotes=, |laysummary=, and |coauthors= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)

External links

• Facing history — The evolution of Czech-German relations in the Czech provinces, 1848–1948: historical publication sponsored by Czech government; series of PDF files
• Emotions prevail in relations between Germans, Czechs, Poles– poll, Czech Happenings, 21 December 2005

• Sudeten Germans
• Demographics of Czechoslovakia
• Germanic peoples
• Jewish Czechoslovak history