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An Abbasid-Carolingian alliance was attempted and partially formed during the 8th to 9th century through a series of embassies, rapprochements and combined military operations between the Frankish Carolingian Empire and the Abbasid Caliphate or the pro-Abbasid Muslim rulers in Spain. These contacts followed the intense conflict between the Carolingians and the Umayyads, marked by the landslide Battle of Tours in 732, and were aimed at establishing a counter-alliance with the faraway Abbasid Empire. Slightly later, another Carolingian-Abbasid alliance was attempted in a conflict against Byzantium.

Contacts under Pepin (765-768)

Contacts started soon after the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate and the concommital fall of the Umayyad Caliphate in 751. The Carolingian ruler Pepin the Short had a powerful enough position in Europe to "make his alliance valuable to the Abbasid caliph of Baghdad, al-Mansur". Remants of the Umayyad Caliphate were established firmly in southern Spain under Abd ar-Rahman I, and constituted a strategic threat both to the Carolingian on their southern border, and to the Abbasid at the Western end of their dominion.

Embassies were exchanged both ways, with the apparent objective of cooperating against the Umayyads of Spain: a Frank embassy went to Baghdad in 765, and an Abbasid embassy visited France in 768.

Commercial exchanges occurred between the Carolingian and Abassid realms, and Arabic coins are known to have spread in Carolingian Europe in that period. As a famous example, the 8th century English king Offa of Mercia is known to have minted copies of Abbasid dinars struck in 774 by Caliph Al-Mansur with "Offa Rex" centered on the reverse.

Military alliance in Spain (777-778)

In 777, pro-Abbasid rulers of northern Spain contacted the Carolingian to request help against the powerful Ummayyad Caliphate in southern Spain, still led by Abd ar-Rahman I. Sulayman al-Arabi the pro-Abbasid Wali (governor) of Barcelona and Girona sent a delegation to Charlemagne in Paderborn, offering his submission, together with the allegiance of Husayn of Zaragoza and Abu Taur of Huesca in return for military aid. The three Umayyad ruler also conveyed that the caliph of Baghdad, Muhammad al-Mahdi, was preparing an invasion force against Abd al-Rhaman I.

Following the sealing of this alliance at Paderborn, Charlemagne marched across the Pyrenees in 778 "at the head of all the forces he could muster". His troops were welcomed in Barcelona and Girona by Sulayman al-Arabi. As he moved towards Zaragoza, the troops of Charlemagne were joined by troops led by Sulayman. Husayn of Zaragoza, however, refused to surrender the city, claiming that he had never promised Charlemagne his allegiance. Meanwhile, the force sent by the Baghdad caliphate seems to have been stopped near Barcelona. After a month of siege at Zaragoza, Charlemagne decided to return to his kingdom. On his retreat, Charlemagne suffered an attack from the Basques in central Navarra. As a reprisal he attacked Pamplona, destroying it. However on his retreat north his baggage train was ambushed by the Basques at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass August 15, 778.

Carolingian presence remained south of the Pyrenees however, and the city of Girona was captured in 785, and they then concentrated on expanding their rule to Vich, Caserras and Cardona.

The Muslims made their last incursion in Gaul in 793, where they sacked the suburbs of Narbonne, and defeated Count William of Toulouse near Carcassonne.

Further exchanges

After these campaigns, there were again numerous embassies between Charlemagne and the Abbasid caliph Harun al-Rashid from 797, apparently in view of a Carolingian-Abbasid alliance against Byzantium, or with a view to gaining an alliance against the Umayyads of Spain. Indeed, "it is likely that the Carolingians tried to seek an alliance with the Abbasids in order to weaken the power of their enemies at the time: the Byzantine empire and the Umayyads of Spain", and that they were "forming a pact against a common enemy - namely the Muslim rulers in Umayyad Spain".

Three embassies were sent by Charlemagne to Harun al-Rashid's court and the latter sent at least two embassies to the Charlemagne. Harun al-Rashid is reported to have sent numerous presents to Charlemagne, such as aromatics, fabrics, a clock, a chessboard, and an elephant named Abu 'Abbas.

The 797 embassy was composed of three men, the Jew Isaac (Isaac Judaeus), Lantfrid and Sigimud, and Harun al-Rashid was described as "Aaron, king of the Persians". Four years later in 801, an Abassid embassy arrived in Pisa, composed of "a Persian from the East" and one envoy "Emir Abraham, probably Harun al-Rashid's governor in North Africa, Ibrahim ibn al-Aghlab, with news about Jew Isaac that he was returning with numerous presents. They met with Charlemagne who was present in Italy at that time.

Apparently led by encouragements from Spain, Louis the Pious, king of Aquitaine, captured Barcelona in 801, but failed to extend his conquests to Tortosa, which would remain Muslim for the next 300 years.

In 807, Rodbertus, Charlemagne's ambassador died as he returned from Persia. Harun al-Rashid is also reported to have offered the custody of the Holy places in Jerusalem to Charlemagne. In 807, Abdallah, "sent by the king of the Persian", reached Charlemagne in ] accompanied by two monks from Jerusalem, George (a German named Egilbaldus, prior of the Monastery of the Mount of Olives) and Felix, envoys of the Patriarch Thomas. They also brought many gifts, including a clock ("Horologium").

The third and final embassy was sent by Charlemagne in 809, but it arrived after Harun al'Rashid had died. It seems that in 831, his son al Ma'mun also sent an embassy to Louis the Pious. These embassies also seems to have had the objective of promoting commerce between the two realms.

After 814 and the accession of Louis the Pious to the throne, interal dissensions prevented the Carolingians from further ventures into Spain.

Almost a century later Queen Bertha of Rome is reported to have sent an embassy to the Abbasid caliph Al-Muktafi, requesting friendship and a marital alliance.

Notes

1. Heck, p.172
2. Shalem, p.94-95
3. O'Callaghan p.106
4. Deanesly, p.294
5. Deanesly, p.294
6. Goody, p.80
7. British Museum
8. Medieval European Coinage By Philip Grierson p.330
9. Lewis, p.244
10. Lewis, p.244
11. Lewis, p.244
12. Lewis, p.245
13. Lewis, p.246
14. Lewis, p.253
15. Lewis, p.246
16. Lewis, p.249
17. Lewis, p.249
18. Lewis, p.249
19. Lewis, p.251-267
20. O'Callaghan, p.106
21. O'Callaghan, p.106
22. Heck, p. 172
23. Heck, p. 172
24. O'Callaghan, p.106
25. The oliphant Avinoam Shalem p.94-95
26. Beyond the Arab disease by Riad Nourallah p.51
27. Heck, p. 172
28. Heck, p. 172
29. A History of Palestine, 634-1099 by Moshe Gil, Ethel Broido p.286
30. Gil, p.286
31. O'Callaghan, p.106
32. Gil, p.286
33. Heck, p. 172
34. Gil, p.286
35. Heck, p. 172
36. Heck, p. 173
37. Heck, p. 173
38. O'Callaghan, p.106
39. Heck, p. 173

References

• Margaret Deanesly A History of Early Medieval Europe Taylor & Francis, London Methuen & Co, Ltd
• David Levering Lewis God's Crucible Islam and the Making of Europe, 570-1215 W.W. Norton, 2008 ISBN 9780393064728
• Gene W. Heck When worlds collide: exploring the ideological and political foundations of the clash of civilizations Rowman & Littlefield, 2007 ISBN 0742558568
• Jack Goody Islam in Europe, Polity Press, 2004, ISBN 9780745631936
• Joseph F. O'Callaghan A History of Medieval Spain Cornell University Press, 1983 ISBN 0801492645
• Moshe Gil, Ethel Broido A History of Palestine, 634-1099 Cambridge University Press, 1997 ISBN 0521599849

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• Franks
• Abbasids