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|---|---|
 Admiral Kolchak | |
| Allegiance |  Russian Empire |
| Service | Russian Navy |
| Years of service | 1895-1920 |
| Rank | Admiral (from 1917) |
| Battles / wars | Russo-Japanese War World War I Russian Civil War |
| Awards | Order of St. Stanislaus 2nd class Order of St. Anne 4th class Order of St. George 4th class Order of St. Vladimir 4th class |
Aleksandr Vasiliyevich Kolchak (Template:Lang-ru, November 16 [O.S. November 4] 1874 – February 7, 1920) was a Russian naval commander, polar explorer and later head of part of the anti-Bolshevik White forces during the Russian Civil War. He was also a prominent expert on naval mines and a member of the Russian Geographic Society.
Among Kolchak's awards are the golden saber "For Valor" in the battle of Port Arthur and the Great Gold Constantine Medal from Russian Geographic Society. The Soviet maps scored the Kolchak Island up to mid-30s.
Biography
Early life and career
Kolchak was born in Saint Petersburg in 1874 into a military family descending from the 18th century Romanian mercenary Iliaş Colceag. His father was a retired major-general of the Marine Artillery, who was actively engaged in the siege of Sevastopol in 1854-55, and after his retirement worked as an engineer in ordnance works near St. Petersburg. He was educated for a naval career, graduating from the Naval college in 1894 and joining the 7th Naval Battalion of the city. He was soon transferred to the Far East, serving in Vladivostok from 1895 to 1899. He returned to western Russia and was based at Kronstadt, joining the Polar expedition of Eduard Toll on ship Zarya in 1900 as a hydrologist.
After considerable hardship, Kolchak returned in December 1902; Eduard Toll with three other members went further north and were lost. Kolchak took part in two Arctic expeditions and for a while was nicknamed "Kolchak-Poliarnyi" ("Kolchak the Polar"). For his explorations Kolchak received the highest award of the Russian Geographical Society.
When the Russo-Japanese War began, Kolchak was sent to Port Arthur in March 1904. He served on the cruiser Askold and later commanded the destroyer Serdityi. He succeeded in laying mines in the path of the Japanese ships that destroyed the Japanese cruiser Takasago and was awarded the Order of St. Anna, 4th class. As the siege of the port intensified, he was given command of a naval gun battery. Later wounded, he became a prisoner of war in Nagasaki. His poor health led to his repatriation before the end of the war.
Returning to Saint Petersburg in April 1905, he worked in the Academy of Sciences upon the material collected by him during expeditions. His study, The Ices of the Kara and Siberian Seas, was printed in the Proceedings of the Russian Imperial Academy of Sciences, and is considered the most important work on this subject. Extracts from it were published under the title "The Arctic Pack and the Polynya" in the volume issued in 1929 by the American Geographical Society, Problems of Polar Research.
Kolchak took part in the rebuilding of the Russian Navy, which had been almost completely destroyed during the war. He was on the Naval General Staff from 1906 and joined the Baltic Fleet upon the outbreak of World War I in 1914.
First World War
The sudden declaration of war with Germany did not find the small Russian Baltic Fleet unprepared; it was strong in organisation and in spirit. Initially on the flagship Pogranichnik, Kolchak oversaw the extensive coastal defensive minefields and commanded the naval forces in the Gulf of Riga. Admiral Essen was not satisfied only to remain on the defensive, and ordered Kolchak to prepare a scheme for attacking the approaches of the German naval bases. During the autumn and winter of 1914-1915, Russian destroyers and cruisers, started a series of very dangerous night operations, laying mines at the approaches to Kiel and Danzig. Kolchak, being of the opinion that the person responsible for planning operations should take part in their execution, was always to be found on board those ships which carried out the operations and sometimes took direct command of the destroyer flotillas.
He was promoted to Vice-Admiral in August 1916, the youngest man at that rank, and made commander of the Black Sea Fleet, replacing Admiral Eberhart.
Kolchak's primary mission was to support General Yudenich in his operations against the Ottoman Empire. He also was tasked with the job of countering any U-boat threat and to begin planning an invasion of the Bosporus (which was never carried out). Kolchak's fleet was successful at sinking Turkish colliers. Because there was no railroad linking the coal mines of eastern Turkey with Constantinople, the Russian fleet's attacks on the Turkish coal ships caused the Ottoman government much hardship. In 1916, in a model combined Army-Navy assault, the Russian Black Sea fleet helped the Russian army to take the Ottoman city of Trebizond (modern Trabzon).
One notable disaster took place under Kolchak's watch as the great Russian dreadnought Empress Maria blew up in the port of Sevastopol on October 7, 1916. A careful investigation failed to determine the cause of the explosion; it could have been accidental or sabotage.
Revolution
After the February Revolution in 1917, the Black Sea fleet descended into political chaos. Kolchak was removed from command of the fleet in June and travelled to Petrograd. On his arrival at Petrograd, Kolchak was invited to a meeting of the Provisional Government. There he put his view on the condition of the Russian armed forces and their complete demoralisation. He stated that the only way to save the country was to reestablish discipline and restore capital punishment in the army and navy.
During this time many organisations and newspapers with a nationalist tendency spoke of him as a future dictator. A number of new and secret organisations had sprung up in Petrograd which had as their object the suppression of the Bolshevist movement and the removal of the extremist members of the Government. Some of these organisations asked Kolchak to accept the leadership.
When the news was received by the then Naval Minister of the Provisional Government, Alexander Kerensky, he ordered Kolchak to leave immediately for America (Admiral James H. Glennon, member of American mision, headed by Senator Elihu Root invited Kolchak to go to America in order to give the American Navy Department information on Bosphorus). On 19 August, 1917 Kolchak with several officers left Petrograd for Britain and the United States as a quasi-official military observer. When passing through London he was greeted cordially by the First Lord of the Admiralty, Admiral Sir John Jellicoe, who offered him transport on board a British cruiser on his way to Halifax. The journey to America proved to be unnecessary, as by the time Kolchak arrived, the US had given up the idea of any independent action in the Dardanelles. Kolchak visited the American Fleet and its ports, and decided to return to Russia via Japan.
Russian Civil War
At the time of the revolution in November 1917, he was in Japan and then Manchuria. Kolchak was a supporter of the Provisional Government and returned to Russia, through Vladivostok, in 1918. Kolchak was an absolute supporter of the Allied cause against Germany, and initially hearing of the Bolshevik coup on November 7, 1917, he offered to enlist in the British Army to continue the struggle. Initially, the British were inclined to accept Kolchak’s offer, and there were plans to send Kolchak to Mesopotamia (modern Iraq), but London decided that Kolchak could do more for the Allied cause by overthrowing the Bolsheviks and bringing Russia back into the war on the Allied side. Reluctantly, Kolchak accepted the British suggestions and with a heavy sense of foreboding, Kolchak returned to Russia. Arriving in Omsk, Siberia, en route to enlisting with the Volunteer Army, he agreed to become a minister in the (White) Siberian Regional Government. Joining a fourteen man cabinet, he was a prestige figure; the government hoped to play on the respect he had with the Allies, especially the head of the British military mission, General Alfred Knox.
In November 1918, the unpopular regional government was overthrown in a military coup d'etat. Kolchak had returned to Omsk on November 16 from an inspection tour. He was approached and refused to take power. The Socialist-Revolutionary (SR) Directory leader and members were arrested on November 18 by a troop of Cossacks under ataman Krasilnikov. The remaining cabinet members met and voted for Kolchak to become the head of government with dictatorial powers. He was named Supreme Ruler (Verkhovnyi Pravitel), and he promoted himself to Admiral. The arrested SR politicians were expelled from Siberia and ended up in Europe.
He issued the following manifesto to the population:
The Provisional All-Russian Government has come to an end. The Council of Ministers, having all the power in its hands, has invested me, Admiral Alexander Kolchak, with this power. I have accepted this responsibility in the exceptionally difficult circumstances of civil war and complete disorganisation of the country, and I now make it known that I shall follow neither the reactionary path nor the deadly path of party strife. My chief aims are the organisation of a fighting force, the overthrow of Bolshevism, and the establishment of law and order, so that the Russian people may be able to choose a form of government in accordance with its desire and to realise the high ideas of liberty and freedom. I call upon you, citizens, to unite and to sacrifice your all, if necessary, in the struggle with Bolshevism.
The SR leaders in Russia denounced Kolchak and called for him to be killed. Their activities resulted in a small revolt in Omsk on December 22, 1918, which was quickly put down by Cossacks and the Czech Legion, who summarily executed almost 500 rebels. The SRs opened negotiations with the Bolsheviks and in January 1919 the SR People's Army joined with the Red Army.
Kolchak instituted a tough military dictatorship, imprisoning his opponents and forcing workers who had socialised their factories out. He saw his role in military terms – he needed a strong army, regular supplies, and victories, and he did what he saw as necessary to enforce the preconditions to this. He later claimed he "had absolutely no... political objectives... only to create an army of the regular type" "...capable of victory over Bolshevism".
Kolchak acknowledged all of Russia's debts, returned factories and plants to capitalists, granted concessions to foreign capitalists, dispersed trade unions, persecuted revolutionary workers and peasants, and liquidated the soviets. Kolchak's agrarian policy was directed toward restoring private land ownership and strengthening wealthy peasants. Old Tsarist laws were restored. In Ekaterinburg region alone more than 25,000 Bolshevik rebels were shot according to Great Soviet Encyclopedia.
In regions controlled by Kolchak's regime, there was active resistance. The partisan movement was especially strong in the provinces of Altai and Eniseisk. In the summer of 1919 the partisans of Altai Region united to form the Western Siberian Peasants' Red Army (25,000 men). The Taseev Soviet Partisan Republic was founded southest of Eniseisk in early 1919. By the fall of 1919, Kolchak's rear was completely disorganized. About 100,000 Siberian partisans siezed vast regions from Kolchak's regime even before the approach of the Red Army. In February 1920, some 20,000 partisans took control of the Amur region. The military operations were mostly of guerilla character.
Some think of Kolchak: "At west, Kolchak did have some victories, but in the end, due to his cruel behavior towards his political opponents and his savage attempts for reappraisals in which he endeavored all the Russian parties turned against him except the ultra-right wing ones." (EH Carr, History of the Soviet Union, vol1. , Greek edition p.465)
Dictatorship
Initially the White forces under his command had some success. Kolchak was uncertain about combat on land and gave the majority of the strategic planning to D.A. Lebedev, Paul J. Bubnar, and his staff. The northern army under the Russian Anatoly Pepelyayev and the Czech Rudolf Gajda seized Perm in late December 1918 and after a pause other forces spread out from this strategic base. The plan was for three main advances – Gajda to take Archangel, Khanzhin to capture Ufa and the Cossacks under Alexander Dutov to capture Samara and Saratov. Kolchak had put around 110,000 men into the field facing roughly 95,000 Bolshevik troops. Kolchak's good relations with General Alfred Knox meant that his forces were partly armed, munitioned and uniformed by the British (up to August 1919 the British spent an official $239 million aiding the Whites, although Churchill disputed this figure at the time as an "absurd exaggeration").
The White forces took Ufa in March 1919 and pushed on from there to take Kazan and approach Samara on the Volga River. Anti-Bolshevik risings in Simbirsk, Kazan, Viatka, and Samara assisted their endeavours. The newly-formed Red Army proved unwilling to fight and retreated, allowing the Whites to advance to a line stretching from Glazov through Orenburg to Uralsk. Kolchak's territories covered over 300,000 km² and held around 7 million people. In April, the alarmed Bolshevik Central Executive Committee made countering Kolchak their top priority. But as the spring thaw arrived Kolchak's position degenerated – his armies had outrun their supply lines, they were exhausted and the Red Army was pouring newly raised troops into the area.
Kolchak had also aroused the dislike of potential allies including the Czech Legion and the Polish 5th Rifle Division. They withdrew from the conflict in October 1918 but remained a presence, their new leader Maurice Janin regarded Kolchak as an instrument of the British and was pro-SR. Kolchak could not count on Japanese aid either; they feared he would interfere with their occupation of Far Eastern Russia and refused him assistance, creating a 'buffer state' to the east of Lake Baikal under Cossack control. The 7,000 or so American troops in Siberia were strictly neutral regarding "internal Russian affairs" and served only to maintain the operation of the Trans-Siberian railroad in the Far East. The American commander William S. Graves personally disliked the Kolchak government, which he saw as royalist and autocratic, a view that was shared by the American President, Woodrow Wilson.
Defeat and death
When the Red forces managed to reorganise and turn the attack against Kolchak, from 1919 he quickly lost ground. The Red counter-attack began in late April at the centre of the White line, aiming for Ufa. The fighting was fierce as, unlike earlier, both sides fought hard. Ufa was taken by the Red Army on June 9 and later that month the Red forces under Tukhachevsky broke through the Urals. Freed from the geographical constraints of the mountains, the Reds made rapid progress, capturing Chelyabinsk on July 25 and forcing the White forces to the north and south to fall back to avoid being isolated. The White forces re-established a line along the Tobol and the Ishim rivers to temporarily halt the Reds. They held that line until October, but the constant loss of men killed or wounded was beyond the White rate of replacement. Reinforced, the Reds broke through on the Tobol in mid-October and by November the White forces were falling back towards Omsk in a disorganised mass. The Reds were sufficiently confident to start redeploying some of their forces southwards to face Anton Denikin.
Kolchak also came under threat from other quarters: local opponents began to agitate and international support began to wane, with even the British turning more towards Denikin. Gajda, dismissed from command of the northern army, staged an abortive coup in mid-November. Omsk was evacuated on November 14 and the Red Army took the city without any serious resistance, capturing large amounts of ammunition, almost 50,000 soldiers, and ten generals. As there was a continued flood of refugees eastwards, typhus became a serious problem.
Kolchak had left Omsk on the 13th for Irkutsk along the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Travelling a section of track controlled by the Czecho-Slovaks he was sidetracked and stopped; by December his train had only reached Nizhneudinsk. In late December Irkutsk fell under the control of a leftist group (including SRs) and formed the Political Centre. One of their first actions was to dismiss Kolchak. When he heard of this on January 4, 1920, he announced his resignation, giving his office to Denikin and passing control of his remaining forces around Irkutsk to the ataman, G. M. Semyonov. The transfer of power to Semyonov proved a particularly ill-considered move.
It appears that Kolchak was then promised safe passage by the Czecho-Slovaks to the British military mission in Irkutsk. Instead, he was handed over to the leftist authorities in Irkutsk on January 14. On January 20 the government in Irkutsk gave power to a Bolshevik military committee. The White Army under command of Vladimir Kappel rushed toward Irkutsk while Kolchak was "investigated" before a commission of five men from January 21 to February 6. Following the arrival of an order from Moscow, he was summarily sentenced to death along with his Prime Minister, Viktor Pepelyayev. They were executed by firing squad in the early morning, and as it was freezing, digging graves would have been a monumentally inefficient task, so the bodies were disposed of in the Angara River. When the White Army learned about his execution, the decision was made to withdraw farther east. The Great Siberian Ice March followed. The Red Army did not enter Irkutsk until March 7, and only then was the news of Kolchak's death officially released.
Legacy
Admiral Kolchak was not successful from the time of his taking the position of Supreme Ruler until his death, though it must be borne in mind that he operated under very difficult circumstances. As a military commander he was unable to make successful strategic plans or to manage to coordinate with other White Army generals such as Yudenich or Denikin.
Kolchak failed to convince the potentially friendly states of Finland, Poland, or the Baltic states to join with him against the Bolsheviks. He was unable to win diplomatic recognition from any nation in the world, even Britain (though they did support him to some degree). He alienated the Czech Legion, which for a time was a powerful organized military force and very strongly anti-Bolshevik. As was mentioned above, the American commander, General Graves, disliked Kolchak and refused to lend him any military aid at all. Given how hated the Bolsheviks were at this time, Kolchak's inability in this area is striking.
After decades of being vilified by the Soviet government, Kolchak is now a controversial historic figure in post-Soviet Russia. The "For Faith and Fatherland" movement has attempted to rehabilitate his reputation. However, two rehabilitation requests have been denied, by a regional military court in 1999 and by the Supreme Court of the Russian Federation in 2001. In 2004, the Constitutional Court of Russia returned the Kolchak case to the military court for another hearing. Monuments dedicated to Kolchak were built in Saint Petersburg in 2002 and in Irkutsk in 2004, despite objections from some former Communist and left-wing politicians and former Soviet army veterans. There is also a Kolchak Island. A movie about his life, titled Admiral (Адмиралъ), was released in Russia on 9 October 2008 to honor the Admiral. According to popular, but unconfirmed version, Kolchak was the author of the Shine, Shine, My Star chanson.
See also
Notes
- Hrono.info
- 100 великих казней, "Вече", 1999, ISBN 5-7838-0424-X
- ^ Template:Ru icon"Колчак Александр Васильевич". Hrono.ru. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- Template:Ru iconПлотников, И.Ф. "Александр Васильевич Колчак. Жизнь и деятельность". Militera.lib.ru. Retrieved 2009-01-03.
- S.N. Semanov, "Kolchakovshchina"
- "Partisan Movement of 1918-22"
- Lincoln 1999: Red Victory
- Vmdaily.ru
References
- Admiral Kolchak. M. I. Smirnov. The Slavonic and East European Review, Vol. 11, No. 32 (Jan., 1933), pp. 373-387
- Problems of Polar Research: a Series of Papers by Thirty-one Authors. Special Publication No.7. New York, American Geographical Society, 1928.
External links
- An essay on Aleksandr Kolchak, including a photo
- Kolchak interogatory
- White Russians
- Imperial Russian Navy admirals
- People of the Russo-Japanese War
- Russian people of World War I
- Russian and Soviet polar explorers
- People executed by the Soviet Union
- Executed Russian people
- Executed politicians
- Executed military personnel
- People executed by firing squad
- Russian victims of Soviet repressions
- 1874 births
- 1920 deaths
- People from Saint Petersburg