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The cinema of the Soviet Union, not to be confused with "Cinema of Russia" despite Russian language films being predominant in both genres, includes several film contributions of the constituent republics of the Soviet Union reflecting elements of their pre-Soviet culture, language and history, although sometimes censored by the Central Government. Most notable for their republican cinema were Russian SSR, Armenian SSR, Georgian SSR, Ukrainian SSR, and, to a lesser degree, Lithuanian SSR, Byelorussian SSR and Moldavian SSR. At the same time, the nation's film industry, which was fully nationalized throughout most of the country's history, was guided by philosophies and laws propounded by the monopoly Soviet Communist Party which introduced a new view on the cinema, socialist realism, which was different from the one before or after the existence of the Soviet Union.
Historical outline
The new state, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, officially came into existence on December 30, 1922. From the outset, it was held that film would be the most ideal propaganda tool for the Soviet Union because of its mass popularity among the established citizenry of the new land; V. I. Lenin, in fact, declared it the most important medium for educating the masses in the ways, means and successes of Communism, a position which was later echoed by Joseph Stalin. Meanwhile, between World War I and the Russian Revolution, most of the film industry, and the general infrastructure needed to support it (e.g. electrical power), was in a shambles. The majority of cinemas had been in the corridor between Moscow and St. Petersburg in Russia, and most were out of commission. Additionally, many of the performers, producers, directors and other artists of pre-Soviet Russia, had fled the country or were moving ahead of the Red Army forces as they pushed further and further south into the remainder of the Russian Empire. Furthermore, the new government did not have the funds to spare for an extensive reworking of the system of filmmaking. Thus, they initially opted for project approval and censorship guidelines while leaving what of the industry remained in private hands. As this amounted mostly to cinema houses, the first Soviet films consisted of recycled films of the Russian Empire and its imports, to the extent that these were not determined to be offensive to the new Soviet ideology. Ironically, the first new film released in Soviet Russia did not exactly fit this mold: this was Father Sergius, a religious film completed during the last weeks of the Russian Empire but not yet exhibited. It appeared on Soviet screens in 1918.
Beyond this, the government was principally able to fund only short, educational films, the most notorious of which were the agitki - propaganda films intended to "agitate", or energize and enthuse, the masses to participate fully in approved Soviet activities, and deal effectively with those who remained in opposition to the new order. These short (often one small reel) films were often simple visual aids and accompaniments to live lectures and speeches, and were carried from city to city, town to town, village to village (along with the lecturers) to indoctrinate the entire countryside, even reaching areas where film had not been previously seen.
Newsreels, as documentaries, were the other major form of earliest Soviet cinema. Dziga Vertov's newsreel series Kino-Pravda, the best known of these, lasted from 1922 to 1925 and had a propagandistic bent; Vertov used the series to promote Socialist realism but also to experiment with cinema.
Still, in 1921 , there was not one functioning cinema in Moscow until late in the year. Its rapid success, utilizing old Russian and imported feature films, jumpstarted the industry significantly, especially insofar as the government did not heavily or directly regulate what was shown, and by 1923 an additional 89 cinemas had opened. Despite extremely high taxation of ticket sales and film rentals, there was an incentive for individuals to begin making feature film product again - there were places to show the films - albeit they now had to conform their subject matter to a Soviet world view. In this context, the directors and writers who had remained in support of the objectives of Communism assumed quick dominance in the industry, as they were the ones who could most reliably and convincingly turn out films that would satisfy government censors. New talent joined the experienced remainder, and an artistic community assembled with the goal of defining "Soviet film" as something distinct and better from the output of "decadent capitalism". The leaders of this community viewed it essential to this goal to be free to experiment with the entire nature of film, a position which would result in several well-known creative efforts but would also result in an unforeseen counter-reaction by the increasingly solidifying administrators of the government-controlled society.
Eisenstein's Battleship Potemkin was released to wide acclaim in 1925; the film was heavily fictionalized and also propagandistic, preaching the party line about the virtues of the proletariat. The party leaders soon found it difficult to control directors' expression, partly because definitive understanding of a film's meaning was elusive.
One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, color movies such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky and Ivan Grozny.
In the late 1950s and early 1960s Soviet Cinema again flowered, beginning with films such as Ballada o Soldate (Ballad of a Soldier), which won the 1961 BAFTA Award for Best Film, and The Cranes Are Flying.
Vysota (Height) is considered to be one of the best films of the 1950s (it also became the foundation of the bard movement).
The 1980s saw a diversification of subject matter. Touchy issues could now be discussed openly. The results were films like Pokayanie (Repentance), which dealt with Stalinist repressions in Georgia, and the allegorical science fiction movie Kin-dza-dza!, which satirized the Soviet life in general.
Censorship
After Stalin, Soviet filmmakers were given a freer hand to film what they believed audiences wanted to see in their film's characters and stories. However, the industry remained a part of the government and if any material was found politically offensive or undesirable, it was either removed, edited, reshot, or shelved. In rare cases the filmmakers managed to convince the government of the innocence of their work and the film was released. The definition of "socialist realism" was liberalized to allow development of more human characters, but communism still had to remain uncriticized in its fundamentals. Additionally, the degree of relative artistic liberality was changed from administration to administration.
Oddities created by censorship include:
- The first chapter of the epic film Освобождение (Liberation) was filmed 20 years after the subsequent three parts. The director had refused to minimize the errors of the Soviet High Command during the first year of the war, and instead waited for a time when he could film this portion accurately.
- Eisenstein's Aleksandr Nevsky was censored before the German invasion of the Soviet Union due to its depiction of a strong Russian leader defying an invading army of German Teutonic knights. After the invasion, the film was released for propaganda purposes to considerable critical acclaim.
Revolution and Civil War
The first Soviet Russian state film organization, the Film Supdepartment of the People's Commissariat of Education, was established in 1917. The work of the nationalized motion-picture studios was administered by the All-Russian Photography and Motion Picture Department, which was recognized in 1923 into Goskino, which in 1926 became Sovkino. The world's first state-filmmaking school, the First State School of Cinematography, was established in Moscow in 1919.
During the Russian Civil War, agitation trains and ships visited soldiers, workers, and peasants. Lectures, reports, and political meetings were accompanied by newsreels about events at the various fronts.
1920s
In the 1920s, the documentary film group headed by Vertov blazed the trail from the conventional newsreel to the "imagecentered publicistic film", which became the basis of the Russian film documentary. Typical of the 1920s were the topical news serial "Kinopravda" and the film "Forward, Soviet!" by Vertov, whose experiments and achivements in documentary films influenced the development of Russian and world cinematography. Other important films of the 1920s were Shub's historical-revolutionary films such as "The Fall of the Romanov Dynasty." The film "Hydropeat" by I. Zheliabuzhsky marked the beginning of popular science films. Feature-length agitation films in 1918-21 were important in the development of the film industry. Innovation in Russian filmmaking was expressed p articularly in the work of Eisenstein. The film "Battleship Potemkin" was noteworthy for its innovative montage and metaphorical quality of its film language. It won world acclaim. Eisenstein developed concepts of the revolutionary epic in the film "October." Also noteworthy was Pudovkin's adaptation of Gorky's "Mother" to the screen in 1926. Pudovkin developed themes of revolutionary history in the film "The End of St Petersburg" (1927). Other noteworthy silent films were films dealing with contemporary life such as Barnet's "The House on the Trubnaia." The films of Protazanov were devoted to the revolutionary struggle and the shaping of a new way of life, such as "Don Diego and Pelageia" (1928). Ukrainian director Dovzhenko was noteworthy for the historical-revolutionary epic "Zvenigora", the "Arsenal" and the poetic film "Earth".
1930s
In the early 1930s, Russian filmmakers applied socialist realism to their work. Among the most outstanding films was "Chapaev", a film about Russian revolutonaries and society during the Revolution and Civil War. Revolutionary history was developed in films such as "Golden Mountains" by Sergei Yutkevich, "The Outskirts" by Boris Barnet, and the trilogy about Maksim comprised of "The Youth of Maksim", "The Return of Maksim", and "The Vyborg Side". Also notable were biographical films about Lenin such as Mikhail Romm's "Lenin in October" and "Lenin in 1918". The life of Russian society and everyday people were depicted in films such as "Courageous Seven" and "Komsomolsk" by Sergei Gerasimov. The comedies of G. Aleksandrov such as "Volga-Volga" and "The Blazing Path" as well as "The Rich Bride" by Ivan Pyryev and "By the Deep Blue Sea" by Boris Barnet focus on the psychology of the common person, enthusiasm for work and intolerance for remnants of the past. Many films focused on national heroes, including "Alexander Nevsky" by Sergei Eisenstein, "Minin and Pozharsky" by V.Pudovkin, and "Bogdan Khmelnitsky" by I. Savchenko. There were adapdations of literary classics, particularly Mark Donskoi's trilogy of films about Maksim Gorky composed of "Childhood of Gorky", "My Apprenticeships", and "My Universities."
One of the most popular films released in the 1930s was Circus. Immediately after the end of the Second World War, color movies such as The Stone Flower (1946), Ballad of Siberia (1947), and The Kuban Cossacks (1949) were released. Other notable films from the 1940s include Aleksandr Nevsky and Ivan Grozny.
1950s
With the start of the Cold War, writers, still considered the primary auteurs, were all the more reluctant to take up script writing, and the early 50s saw only a handful of feature films completed during any year. The death of Stalin was a merciful relief to many, and all the more so was the official trashing of his public image as a benign and competent leader by Nikita Khruschev two years later. This latter event gave filmmakers the margin of comfort they needed to move away from the narrow formula stories of socialist realism, expand its boundaries, and begin work on a wider range of entertaining and artistic Soviet films.
1960s-70s
The 1960s and 1970s saw the creation of many films, many of which moulded Soviet and post-Soviet culture. They include:
- Seventeen Instants of Spring (Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny) (1973), which created the immortal character of Standartenführer Stirlitz, and whose compelling and unbiased look at the life of a spy in wartorn Germany made the film popular in both German states as well.
- White Sun of the Desert (Beloe Solntze Pustyni) (1970), a classic 'Eastern', although with dubious stereotyping of central Asians. It is ritually watched by cosmonauts before launches, and has contributed many quotes to the Russian language such as 'The East is a delicate matter'. Its theme tune became a huge hit.
- Solaris (1972)
- Moscow Does Not Believe In Tears (1979) (Moskva Slezam ne Verit)
- I am striding Through Moscow (Ya Shagayu po Moskve) (1963)
- Irony of Fate (Original title: Ирония судьбы, или С лёгким паром!) (1975)
- Gentlemen of Fortune (Gentelmeny Udachi) (1972) starring Yevgeny Leonov
- Operation "Y" and other Shurik's adventures (Operatsiya "Y" i drugie priklucheniya Shurika) (1965) and its sequel, Kidnapping, Caucasian Style (Kavkazskaya Plennitsa) (1966)
- The Diamond Arm (Brilliantovaya Ruka). The last four comedies, especially Diamond Arm, have contributed a lot of humorous quotes.
Soviet directors were more concerned with artistic success than with economical success (They were paid by the academy, and so money was not a critical issue). This contributed to the creation of a large number of more philosophical films. In keeping with Russian character, tragi-comedies were very popular. Soviet films tend to be rather culture-specific and are difficult for many foreigners to understand without having been exposed to the culture first.
Animation was a respected genre, with many directors experimenting with technique. Tale of Tales (1979) by Yuriy Norshteyn was twice given the title of "Best Animated Film of All Eras and Nations" by animation professionals from around the world, in 1984 and 2002.
These decades were prominent in the production of the Ostern or Red Western.
In the year of the 60th anniversary of the Soviet cinema (1979), on April 25, a decision of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR established a commemorative "Day of the Soviet cinema". It was then celebrated in the USSR each year on August 27, the day on which V. I. Lenin signed a decree to nationalise the country's cinematic and photographic industries.
Later years
The decade of the 1980s, with the policies of perestroika and glasnost, saw a loosening of the censorship of earlier eras. A genre known as "chernukha" (from the Russian word for "black"), including films such as Little Vera, portrayed the harsh realities of Soviet life. Notable films of this period include:
- Pokrovsky Gates (Pokrovskiye Vorota) (1982) a made-for-television comedy starring Oleg Menshikov
- Little Vera (Malenkaya Vera) (1988) notable as one of the first Soviet film with sexually explicit scenes
- Kin-dza-dza! (1986) allegorical science fiction
Soviet films
Main article: List of Soviet filmsThere are many movies which are well-remembered and looked upon fondly in the former Soviet republics; famous lines or jokes from these movies are often quoted and some have even become a part of the Russian language as sayings and idioms. Most of these classic Soviet movies were produced by Mosfilm and other state-owned film studios.
Genres
Movies
Action
- Белое солнце пустыни ("Beloye solntse pustyni", "White Sun of the Desert") - one of the best loved Soviet films of all time. For more information on this type of movie, see Red Western.
Comedy
- Gentlemen of Fortune - a schoolteacher played by Evgeni Leonov pretends to be a criminal boss called Professor (who looks exactly like him) in order to gain information about a stolen artifact from Professor's two lackeys.
- Kidnapping, Caucasian Style ("Kavkazskaya plennitsa, ili Novye priklyucheniya Shurika", "Prisoner of the Caucasus, or Shurik's New Adventures"). A lot of ethnic humor, as Shurik gets involved unwittingly in kidnapping. It's also a satire of corrupt local officials.
- Ivan Vasilievich: Back to the Future ("Ivan Vasilyevich menyaet professiyu", "Ivan Vasilievich changes his profession") - a scientist's time travel machine ends up teleporting his tenement administrator into 16th century Russia and bringing Ivan the Terrible into the present. The two are identical in appearance and chaos promptly ensues.
- The Twelve Chairs - based on the famous novel of the same name by Ilf and Petrov.
- The Diamond Arm - starring Yuri Nikulin, Anatoli Papanov, and Andrei Mironov. Inept smugglers try to recover diamonds which ended up with the wrong man.
- The Pokrovsky Gates - starring Oleg Menshikov as a young student who comes to Moscow and finds himself involved in the misfortunes of his fellow apartment tenants.
Drama
- Ирония судьбы или с лёгким паром ("Ironiya sudby ili s lyogkim parom", "Irony of Fate, or Enjoy Your Bath") - a comedy-drama so beloved in Russia that it is broadcasted on television every New Year Eve, similarly to the American movie A Christmas Story being broadcast every Christmas.
- Место встречи изменить нельзя ("Mesto vstrechi izmenit nelzya", "The Meeting Place Cannot Be Changed") - A 1979 miniseries set in 1945. Vladimir Vysotsky plays a no-nonsense cop trying to catch the deadly Black Cat gang.
- Обыкновенное чудо ("Obyknovennoye chudo", "Ordinary wonder") - a fairy-tale love story about a bear who has been transformed into a man by a wizard, and must be kissed by a princess to return to his original form.
- Семнадцать мгновений весны ("Semnadtsat mgnoveniy vesny", "Seventeen Moments of Spring") - a multi-episode film about an undercover Soviet spy, "Stirlitz", in Germany during World War II. An entire type of joke, usually based on a play on words, has arisen from these movies.
- Тихий Дон (1957) ("Tikhiy Don", "And Quiet Flows the Don" (1957)) by Sergei Gerasimov - an adaptation of the Nobel prize winning novel And Quiet Flows the Don.
- Война и мир ("Voyna i mir", "War and Peace") - a version of Tolstoy's novel as giant as the original.
Notable filmmakers
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Early personalities in the development of Soviet cinema: |
Later personalities:
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Soviet studios
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See also
- Cinema of Russia, Cinema of Ukraine, etc.
- List of Soviet movies of the year by ticket sales
- History of Russian animation
- History of cinema
- World cinema
References
- http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1
- http://slovari.yandex.ru/dict/bse/article/00075/36400.htm?text=%D0%94%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%BE&encid=bse&stpar1=1.6.1
- Butenko, I. A. & Razlogov, K. E., Recent Social Trends in Russia, 1960-1995, McGill-Queen's Press, 1997. ISBN 0773516107
- Hertenstein, Mike, Idols and Icons (Part II) A Survey of Russian and Soviet Cinema
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