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The Anglo-Saxons were originally a collection of differing Germanic tribes from Angeln—a peninsula in the southern part of Schleswig, protruding into the Baltic Sea, and what is now Lower Saxony, in the north-west coast of Germany—who achieved dominance in southern Britain from the mid-5th century. They eventually coalesced completely around the 9th century into a single people, the Anglo-Saxons, forming the basis for the modern day English country, people, language and culture.

Origins of the word

The term "Anglo-Saxon" is from Latin writings going back to the time of King Alfred the Great, who seems to have frequently used the title rex Anglorum Saxonum or rex Angul-Saxonum. The origin of this title is not quite clear. It is generally believed to have arisen from the final union of the various kingdoms under Alfred in 886. Bede (Historia Ecclesiae i. 15) states that the people of the more northern kingdoms (East Anglia, Mercia, Northumbria, &c.) belonged to the Angli, those of Essex, Sussex and Wessex were sprung from the Saxons, while those of Kent and southern Hampshire from the Jutes. Other early writers do not bear out consistent distinctions, though in custom Kent presents most remarkable contrasts with the other kingdoms. West Saxon writers regularly speak of their own nation as a part of the Angelcyn and of their language as Englisc, while the West Saxon royal family claimed to be of the same stock as that of Bernicia in the north. On the other hand, it is by no means impossible that the distinction drawn by Bede was based solely on the names Essex (East Seaxan), East Anglia, &c. We need not doubt that the Angli and the Saxons were different nations originally; but from the evidence it seems likely that they had practically coalesced in very early times, perhaps even before the invasion. At all events the term Angli Saxones seems to have first come into use by Latin writers on the continent, nearly a century before Alfred's time, in the writings of Paul the Deacon, historian of the Lombards. There can be little doubt, however, that there it was used to distinguish the Teutonic inhabitants of Britain from the Old Saxons of the continent.

The Anglo-Saxon Invasions

Main article: Sub-Roman Britain

In 410, the Emperor Honorius replied to a petition for help, reputedly from the inhabitants of Roman Britain—although there is now some dispute as to where the request originated—that they should "look to their own affairs"; from this brief mention, historians have assumed that effective Roman rule in Britain ended. Some scholars find signs of local authorities maintaining Roman patterns in the following years; this remains speculative. Nevertheless, with the withdrawal of the Roman army and the cessation of coinage, Roman administration of the British Isles was autonomous from the early fifth-century. This is highly demonstrable in the archaeology of "Sub-Roman Britain" in which the Roman way of life is overcome by an arguably more primitive and "barbarian" one. Until the mid-twentieth century scholars were still referring to this period as the "Dark Ages", not least due to the lack of written records, but also due to the nature of the archaeological record: roads ceased to be maintained and some urban centres were abandoned; the circulation of coinage ceased abruptly, though not, it now appears, did trade with the Continent; manufactured goods became cruder with the reversion from wheel- to hand-thrown methods of pottery; and even the means of disposing of the dead changed also, with the practise of extramural burial—burial outside the city walls—being neglected. Most recent archaeology tends to find more Roman continuity in some sites than previously thought.

Into this apparent power vacuum, the Anglo-Saxons came and settled in the island, primarily on the east and south coasts. The exact details of their arrival are unclear, although their migration was part of the widespread movement of Germanic tribes on the mainland of Europe at this time, called the "Migrations period".

Where reliable history fails, legend offers us a narrative, and many have argued that there is some kernel of truth in the legend. At least as early as Bede, the tradition relates how at a council of war, Vortigern, leader of the effectively self-governing Britons, granted Thanet in Kent to the Jutish warrior leader Hengist (or Hengest) as a permanent possession, in return for his followers' help in defending the region against invading Picts and any other enemies. Vortigern's refusal to pay these mercenaries led to Hengest's successful rebellion, extensive immigration and the conquest of what is now England over the next two hundred years. Archaeological explorations have indicated that Anglo-Saxon kingdoms were established in Kent, Sussex, Middlesex, and Essex in the latter part of the 5th century, as well as East Anglia, Lindsey (now Lincolnshire), Deira (now East Yorkshire) and the Isle of Wight.

Organised British resistance, first led by Ambrosius Aurelianus (according to Gildas), and then possibly by King Arthur, culminated in the Battle of Mons Badonicus. This succeeded in halting the expansion of the English kingdoms. The leaders who fought with Arthur at this and other battles may have given rise to the tale of the "Knights of the Round Table."

The contest for Britain was still in the balance as late as 590, with King Urien of Rheged besieging Lindisfarne, the stronghold of Bernicia, and other Celts victorious in 584 at the Battle of Fethanleag (Stoke Lyne, 5km north of Bicester in Oxfordshire). In the previous 120 years, the Anglo-Saxons had added only Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, Bedfordshire and Buckinghamshire to the area under their firm control. But Urien was murdered by a rival among his compatriots, and Anglo-Saxon control of most of what is now England was cemented over the next 70 years. Perhaps in memory of this eventual defeat by the Anglo-Saxons, the modern Welsh word for England, "Lloegyr", means "the lost lands". "Welsh" in the English language originally meant "foreigner".

Besides Angles, Saxons and Jutes, Frisians and perhaps the Franks, are known to have taken part in the "invasions". The various tribes established a large number of kingdoms in what today is known as England, which were popularly described to have later consolidated into seven states known as the Heptarchy.

According to tradition, Kent was established first by the Jutes under Hengist. Another Jutish king, Horsa, may have taken part; he may have been Hengist's brother.

East Anglia's beginnings are unknown and very little record survives of its foundation or the fate of the native Britons, the once mighty Iceni tribe, who had dwelt there before. The name Mercia may mean "marches" and be related to the name of the River Mersey: a frontier area facing the Celtic Romano-British or Welsh. Deira and Bernicia appear to be Anglic corruptions of older British geographical names; the two states subsequently merged to form the kingdom of Northumbria.

The "Anglo-Saxon conquest" controversy

The nature of the Anglo-Saxon invasion is controversial. Traditionally, historians support an Anglo-Saxon conquest and near genocide or expulsion of the native Celtic population. This view has been held because of historical traditions, the remarkable absence of Celtic words in the Old English language, and the establishment of new Celtic kingdoms in Brittany (now in France) by refugees. However recent research by historians, archaeologists and geneticists offer some new perspectives.

Historians

Historians who challenge the traditional narrative of a "Saxon conquest" point out a marked lack of archaeological evidence for a major invasion. They believe instead there was a gradual change in favour of the Anglo-Saxons, comprising mainly benign migration and resulting in a mixture with an existing population who absorbed the culture and language of the migrants. Studies that show the ethnic origins of the people have varied in their conclusions (for example the conflicting results of the genetic studies below) and there are some linguistic patterns in the development of Old English that compromise with Celtic traditions in a way that suggests gradual adoption.

One posited theory is that most sources for a "Saxon conquest" originated with historians with a partisan agenda in presenting an English identity . The historian Norman Davies, in The Isles suggests that the Celts were overlooked in the historical record in part because no documentation of their orally-transmitted histories remain, the Celts having regarded writing as a threat to their oral traditions. Generations of history based on literary sources alone saw British history as beginning with Roman invasions of the first century AD: "So long as classical education and classical prejudices prevailed, educated Englishmen inevitably saw ancient Britain as an alien land."

Geneticists

The fate of the Romano-British Celtic population is a matter of conjecture that is currently being unravelled by the genetic history of modern-day inhabitants.

Broad studies based on genetic testing of modern Britons on a wide scale provide new kinds of data. Formerly, historians believed the accounts of Gildas, Bede, and the English chroniclers uncritically, and thought that the invaders slaughtered or expelled all whom they encountered in an act of genocide. The genetic map supports recent historians, such as H.P.R. Finberg and Norman Davies, who have argued that the Celtic Britons largely survived, and lived under the Anglo-Saxon invaders as slaves or serfs and swiftly adopted Anglo-Saxon culture. Material remains alone would have identified them as Anglo-Saxons.

The large genetic survey of Y chromosome mutations in the British Isles, led by Profs. Cristian Capelli and David Goldstein of University College London and published in 2003, found that the genetic stamp of the Anglo-Saxons on the British Isles was weaker than expected. Less than half the tested population, all with deep roots in British locations, showed Anglo-Saxon markers. (However, the tests were on people now living, after 1500 years of subsequent migration and mixing within Britain.)

Other genetics studies support the traditional story that a Saxon conquest and genocide did in fact occur. As stated in one study, the evidence ..suggests that between 50% and 100% of the indigenous population of what was to become England was wiped out, with Offa's Dyke acting as a "genetic barrier" protecting those on the Welsh side. It has been found that the genome of the English people is almost identical to that of the Germanic peoples of continental Europe, The English and Frisians studied had almost identical genetic make-up but the English and Welsh were very different. In fact not only are the English descendents of these invaders, the Anglo-Saxons and Vikings, but the Scottish and Cornish gene pools also show a high percentage of Germanic genes, The Cornish are in effect Anglo-Saxons who for a time used a language that was hanging around. The genes of Scottish males also betrayed considerable inter-mixing with outsiders. According to these studies it seems that only the Welsh escaped the onslaught from the Anglo-Saxon invaders, thus creating a genetic barrier in the British Isles. Through these genetic studies it has been shown that the Welsh are closely related to the Irish (not including Ulster), Highland Scots and the Basques.

Timeline from 597 to 1066

597 - Roman Christianity is brought to Britain for the first time by St. Augustine, sent from Pope Gregory to convert the Saxons. Augustine lands in Kent and is welcomed by King Aethelbert whose Frankish Queen is already a Christian practicing at her church of St. Martin's, Canterbury. Augustine converts Aethelbert and his court to Christianity and founds a monastery at Canterbury. Commencement of the erection of a monastery at St. Augustine's, Canterbury, built from the Roman ruins of the old city. Death of King Ceol of Wessex. He is succeeded by his brother, Ceolwulf.

598 - Kings Mynyddog Mwynfawr of Din-Eidyn & Cynan of Gododdin ride south to fight King Aethelfrith's Bernician army against enormous odds at the Battle of Catterick. The British are victorious. Probable expansion of North Rheged to fill the vacuum left in North Yorkshire.

602 - St. Augustine of Canterbury meets with the Welsh Bishops at Aust near Chepstow. He accuses them of acting contrary to Church teachings, failing to keep Easter at the prescribed Roman time and not administering baptism according to the Roman rite. He also insists that they help in the conversion of their enemy, the Saxons, and look to Canterbury as their spiritual centre. The Welsh tactfully decline. Augustine is proclaimed Archbishop of Canterbury.

604 - The Welsh Bishops meet for a second time with St. Augustine of Canterbury. He neglects to rise to greet them, lectures them again and insists they submit to him. The Welsh refuse to recognise the authority of a church within their enemies' territory under such a disrespectful bishop. The See of Rochester is established and Justus appointed its first bishop. Death of King Sledda of Essex. He is succeeded by his son, Saebert. King Saebert is persuaded to convert to Christianity through the intervention of his uncle, King Aethelbert of Kent. The See of Essex is founded. King Aethelbert of Kent founds the cathedral church of St. Paul in London. St. Mellitus is appointed the first Saxon Bishop of London (& Essex). King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Deira and kills its king, Aethelric. Prince Edwin, son of the late King Aelle of Deira (and possibly nephew of King Aethelric) flees to the Court of King Iago of Gwynedd. Aethelfrith marries King Aelle's daughter, Acha, and takes the kingdom.

605 - Birth of Prince (later King) Oswald of Bernicia. Death of Bishop Augustine of Canterbury. He is buried in St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Laurence of Canterbury.

606 - Death of King Pybba of Mercia. He is succeeded by his kinsman, Ceorl.

611 - Death of King Ceolwulf of Wessex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Cynegils. King Cynegils shares power with his eldest son, Cwichelm, who may have been given Upper Wessex.

613 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia invades Gwynedd in order to rout out his old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. A united British force (Gwynedd, Powys, Pengwern and Dumnonian warriors) clashes with his army at the Battle of Chester. King Iago of Gwynedd and King Selyf Sarffgadau of Powys are both killed but the victor is unclear. The Battle of Bangor-is-Coed follows in quick succession. King Bledric of Dumnonia is killed in the fighting and 1000 monks are massacred by the Northumbrians. King Edwin of Deira flees to the Court of King Raedwald of East Anglia. Birth of Prince (later King) Oswiu of Bernicia. The stone Abbey Church at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury is completed and dedicated to St. Peter and St. Paul.

614 - King Cynegils & his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex invade Dumnonia and defeat the local army (possibly under a King Clemen) at the Battle of Bindon. Birth of Princess (later Abbess & Saint) Hilda of Deira.

c.615 - King Aethelfrith of Bernicia visits King Raedwald of East Anglia at Rendlesham and persuades him to hand over the former's old enemy, King Edwin of Deira. In return, Raedwald is promised rich rewards, yet war is threatened if he fails to comply. Raedwald's wife however, reminds him of his obligations as Edwin's protector and the King declines the offer. King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Cwenburga, daughter of King Ceorl of Mercia.

616 - King Edwin of Deira, with the help of King Raedwald of East Anglia, conquers Northumbria at the Battle of the River Idle. King Aethelfrith of Bernicia & Deira is killed in the fighting and his children are forced to flee north. His heir, Prince Eanfrith, seeks refuge with his mother's family, probably in Gododdin, and then moves further north into Pictland; Princes Oswald, Oswiu and others escape to King Eochaid Buide of Dalriada where they are converted to Christianity by the monks of Iona. Death of Kings Aethelbert of Kent and Saebert of Essex. The former is succeeded by his pagan son, Eadbald, who promptly marries his step-mother, in accordance with pre-Christian custom. King Eadbald loses overlordship of Essex, where the new kings, Saebert's sons, Sexred, Saeward and Sexbald, throw out the Christian missionaries. Bishop (& Saint) Mellitus of London (& Essex) flees with Bishop Justus of Rochester to France. King Eadbald of Kent is persuaded to convert to Christianity by St. Laurence, Archbishop of Canterbury.

617 - King Edwin of Deira invades and conquers Elmet. King Ceretic of Elmet is killed in the fighting. Death of King Raedwald of East Anglia. He was probably buried in the Great Ship in the Royal East Anglian Cemetery at Sutton Hoo. Shortlived succession of his brother, Eni.

618 - Raedwald's son. Eorpwald, takes the East Anglian throne from his uncle, King Eni.

619 - Death of Archbishop Laurence of Canterbury. He is buried in Canterbury and is later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by St. Mellitus.

620 - The church of St. Mary is built at the Royal Abbey complex of St. Augustine's, Canterbury.

c.620 - Angles probably under King Edwin of Deira invade South Rheged, and expel King Llywarch Hen who flees to Powys. Edwin's armies also move north into Southern Strathclyde and Gododdin. Prince Eanfrith, heir of Bernicia, marries a Pictish Royal Princess and fathers Prince (later King) Talorcan (I) of the Picts.

c.623 - King Edwin of Deira is baptised by Prince Rhun of North Rheged, according to the Historia Brittonum. This was probably at the Royal Court of Gwynedd. He soon relapses back to paganism.

624 - Death of Archbishop Mellitus of Canterbury, later revered as a saint. He is succeeded by Bishop (& Saint) Justus of Rochester.

625 - King Edwin of Deira marries Princess Ethleburga of Kent. As a Christian, she brings her personal chaplain, Paulinus, north with her. St. Paulinus has already been consecrated Bishop of York. With the help of Pope Boniface, the new Queen encourages her husband to convert to Christianity.

626 - Death of King Ceorl of Mercia. He is succeeded by Penda, son of his predecessor. Prince Cwichelm of Wessex sends an assassin to murder King Edwin of Deira. Edwin is saved from the assassin's dagger by the intervention of one of his thanes who is killed. Edwin's daughter, Eanflaed, is born the same night and he promises to give her for baptism to St. Paulinus, if he is victorious over the instigator of this crime. Edwin discovers Cwichelm's treachery and marches on Wessex. Prince Cwichelm and his father, King Cynegils of Wessex, march north to meet the Northumbrians at the Battle of Win Hill & Lose Hill, possibly with the aid of King Penda of Mercia. Despite their army's superior numbers, the Wessex duo are defeated and flee south. Edwin keeps his promise to St. Paulinus.

c.626 - The rivalry between King Edwin of Deira and King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, which has grown since childhood, reaches a climax. Edwin invades the Isle of Man and then Anglesey. Cadwallon is defeated in battle and is besieged on Puffin Island. He eventually flees to Brittany.

627 - St. Paulinus converts King Edwin of Deira back to Christianity at the Royal Court of Yeavering. The King is baptised in Paulinus' proto-Cathedral in York and persuades his sub-monarch, King Eorpwald of East Anglia to follow suit. Death of Archbishop Justus of Canterbury.

c.627 - Possible building of the Western section of the Wansdyke, by King Cynegils of Wessex, in an attempt to counter King Penda of Mercia.

628 - King Cynegils and his son, Prince Cwichelm, of Wessex clash with King Penda at the Battle of Cirencester. Cynegils' son, Cenwalh, may have married King Penda's sister as part of the subsequent peace treaty by which the Mercians take control of the area. King Penda probably establishes the sub-Kingdom of the Hwicce at this time. Anti-Christian uprising in East Anglia. King Eorpwald is killed by one Ricbert, and his half-brother, Sigebert, flees to France. Ricbert takes the throne. The exiled Prince Oswald of Northumbria accompanies King Connad Cerr of Dalriada to Ireland to fight against Maelcaich and the Irish Cruithne at the Battle of Fid Eoin.

629 - St. Paulinus meets Blecca, the Praefectus Civitatis of Lincoln, and converts him to Christianity.

630 - The West Saxons invade Gwent. King Meurig defeats them, with the help of his father, at the Battle of Pont-y-Saeson.

c.630 - King Penda of Mercia besieges Exeter (possibly held by King Clemen of Dumnonia). King Cadwallon of Gwynedd lands nearby, from his Deiran imposed exile in Brittany. He negotiates an alliance with King Penda of Mercia and a united British and Saxon force moves north to re-take Gwynedd. The Deirans are defeated at the Battle of the Long Mountain and Cadwallon chases them back to Northumbria. The British ransack Northumbria. St. Felix arrives in Britain from Burgundy with the intention of evengelising the Angles. He stays a while at Canterbury.

631 - Death of King Ricbert of East Anglia. The half-brother of his predecessor, King Eorpwald, returns from exile in France and takes the throne as the Christian King Sigebert. With the new King's encouragement, St. Felix is sent by Archbishop Honorius of Canterbury to evangelise his people. St. Felix establishes his see at Dunwich.

c.631 - King Edwin of Deira re-fortifies the City of York, probably including the building of the so-called Anglian Tower.

632 - The West Saxons cross into Wales and defeat King Idris of Meirionydd on the Severn.

633 - King Edwin of Deira and his Northumbrian army meet the British, under King Cadwallon of Gwynedd, in the Battle of Hatfield Chase. King Edwin is killed in the fighting and Cadwallon is victorious. Edwin's cousin, Osric, succeeds to the throne of Deira and Prince Eanfrith of Bernicia returns from Pictland to claim his rightful crown. Both are pagans. St. Paulinus, Bishop of York, flees south and is made Bishop of Rochester. Cadwallon is later besieged at York by King Osric. The former is again victorious.

634 - Despite suing for peace, King Cadwallon of Gwynedd slays both King Eanfrith of Bernicia and Osric of Deira. Eanfrith's half-brother, Oswald succeeds, as son of Aethelfrith of Bernicia and Acha of Deira, to a united Northumbria. He is given a force of men (including monks from Iona) by King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada and marches south to claim his inheritance. He clashes with King Cadwallon of Gwynedd at the Battle of Heavenfield. Despite having superior numbers, Cadwallon is killed, and King Oswald victorious. The former Queen Ethelburga of Deira packs up her infant sons and step-grandson and flees to France for fear that, as offspring of her husband, King Edwin, Oswald will have them murdered. The Deiran Royal Court at Yeavering is probably abandoned at this time. Oswald re-introduces Christianity to Northumbria, though James the Deacon is still ministering to the people of Swaledale. The chief among the monks who accompanied the King from Dalriada attempts to convert the Northumbrians, but meets with little success. Oswald calls on Iona to send an evangelical Bishop. King Sigebert of East Anglia retires to the monastery of Burgh Castle and entrusts the kingdom to his cousin, Egric, who had already been deputising in part of the country. St. Birinus arrives as a bishop from Genoa to convert the people of Mercia. He, however, decides to halt in Wessex instead. He preaches to King Cynegils of Wessex near Cholsey. Birth of St. Cuthbert and St. Wilfred.

635 - King Penda of Mercia aims to gain Anglia and attacks his rivals in East Anglia. Ex-King Sigebert is forced to leave his monastery in order to join King Egric in battle against the invaders. Sigebert and Egric are both killed in the fighting. Sigebert is later revered as a saint. Egric's brother, Anna, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. St. Aidan, Bishop of Scattery Island, arrives to evangelise Northumbria and founds the Bishopric and Priory of Lindisfarne. Under pressure from King Oswald of Northumbria, King Cynegils of Wessex, is persuaded to let St. Birinus convert him to Christianity. Cynegils' eldest son, Cwichelm, resists. Cynegils is baptised at Dorchester-on-Thames and gives Birinus the town for a cathedral. Birinus is made the first Bishop of Wessex. Oswald acts as godfather and agrees to enter into a strategic alliance with Wessex against Mercia. The agreement is cemented by the marriage of King Oswald to King Cynegils' daughter, Princess Cyniburg.

c.635 - St. Finnian and St. Aebbe, half-sister of King Oswald of Northumbria, found the monastery of Coldsbury at St. Abbs.

636 - St. Birinus converts Prince Cwichelm of Wessex to Christianity. The latter dies soon after. He is supposedly buried at Scutchamer Knob in East Hendred.

637 - King Oswald of Northumbria probably sends troops to Ireland to assist King Domnall Brecc of Dalriada in his alliance with King Congal Caech of Ulster during the Irish dynastic wars. They are defeated at the Battle of Mag Rath.

638 - King Oswald and his Northumbrian army conquer Edinburgh. His half-brother, Prince Oswiu of Bernicia, marries Princess Rhiainfelt, heiress of North Rheged. Northumbria probably embraces North Rheged in a peaceful takeover. Oswiu may have been sub-King there for a time.

c.640 - St. Maildulph settles in Malmesbury.

640 - Death of King Eadbald of Kent. He is succeeded by his sons, Earconbert as overking and Eormenred as King of West Kent. St. Aebbe moves her monastery from St. Abbs to Coldingham Priory. Foundation of Hartlepool Abbey by Princess Hieu (of Ireland) who becomes the first Abbess.

641 - Prince Oswiu of Bernicia conquers Gododdin as far north as Manau, on behalf of his half-brother, King Oswald.

642 - King Penda of Mercia commands a united British and Mercian force against King Oswald of Northumbria. The British army includes the men of Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd, Eluan of Powys and Cynddylan of Pengwern. Oswald is killed at the Battle of Oswestry, as is Prince Eowa of Mercia, probably sub-King of Wrocenset. Oswald is buried at Bardney Abbey and is later made a saint. He is succeeded by his half-brother, Oswiu, in Bernicia, but he is found to be unacceptable to the Deirans. The Mercians become dominant in Midland Britain.

643 - King Oswiu of Bernicia sends to Kent for Princess Eanflaed, daughter of King Edwin of Deira. She sails north to Bamburgh and the two are married. Despite this, Oswiu still fails to secure Deira. King Penda of Mercia seizes control of Lindsey and Elmet. Death of King Cynegils of Wessex. He is succeeded by his son, Cenwalh, who promptly repudiates his Royal Mercian wife.

644 - Despite armed objections from King Oswiu of Bernicia, Oswine, the son of Osric of Deira, establishs himself as King of Deira, possibly with Mercian support. Death of Bishop Paulinus of Rochester.

645 - King Cenwalh of Wessex is driven from his kingdom by his one time brother-in-law, King Penda of Mercia. He flees to the Court of King Anna of East Anglia. Penda overruns Wessex.

647 - Death of Bishop Felix of Dunwich. He is buried at Soham and is later made a saint.

c.647 - Princess (& Saint) Hilda of Deira is persuaded by St. Aidan to enter monastic life at Hartlepool Abbey.

648 - St. Wilfred enters Lindisfarne Priory. King Cenwalh of Wessex returns to reclaim his kingdom. He gives 3,000 hides of land around Ashdown to his nephew, Cuthred, possibly sub-King of Berkshire.

c.648 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invites St. Birinus to establish the Old Minster in Winchester. They create a small stone church.

649 - Death of Abbes Hieu of Hartlepool. She is succeeded by St. Hilda.

650 - Death of Bishop Birinus of Wessex. He is buried at Dorchester-on-Thames and later made a saint. King Cenwalh of Wessex invites the Frankish priest, St. Agilbert, to succeed him.

c.650 - The Mercians, under King Penda, move on East Anglia, destroy the monastery at Burgh Castle and expel King Anna who probably flees to Magonset. It may have been at this time that Penda takes control of Magonset and installs his son, Merewalh as King there. King Oswiu of Bernicia founds Melrose Abbey. St. Aidan sends St. Eata to be the first Abbot with St. Boisil as his Prior. Oswiu seeks Irish support against the forces of King Penda of Mercia. While in Ireland he has a liaison with Fin, the (grand) daughter of Colman Rimid Ui Neill. Prince Aeldfrith is born soon afterward. Re-establishment of London as a Saxon trading community at Aldwich.

651 - King Oswiu of Bernicia has King Oswine of Deira murdered at Gilling, after the later backs down from conflict. Oswine is buried at Tynemouth Priory where he is later made a saint. He is succeeded by the late King Oswald of Northumbria's son and Oswiu's nephew, Aethelwald. King Aethelwald of Deira appears to initially accept his uncle's overlordship. Queen Eanflaed donates the estate of Gilling for the foundation of a monastery in recompense for her second cousin's murder. Death of St. Aidan, Bishop of Lindisfarne. He is succeeded by St. Finan. Death of St. Boisil, Prior of Melrose. He is succeeded by St. Cuthbert.

652 - King Penda's Mercian army invades Bernicia and besieges King Oswiu at Bamburgh.

653 - King Penda of Mercia establishes full control of Middle Anglia and makes his son, Peada, king there. In return for the daughter of King Oswiu of Bernicia, Princess Alchflaed, Peada accepts baptism, into the Christian church, by Saint Finan of Lindisfarne, at Wattbottle. The Middle Anglians have already been influenced by East Anglian Christianity and King Peada allows St. Cedd to envangelise his kingdom further. King Sigeberht II of Essex is then also persuaded by Oswiu, his overlord, to adopt Christianity as part of a general mobilization against King Penda of Mercia. Northumbrian missionaries under St. Cedd are despatched to Essex where he founds the monastery at Bradwell-on-Sea. Talorcan I, the nephew of King Oswiu of Bernicia is crowned Pict King through right of his mother. He probably accepts Northumbrian overlordship. St. Wilfred leaves Lindisfarne for Kent, then travels on to Lyons and Rome.

c.653 - King Aethelwald of Deira rejects his uncle's overlordship and turns to King Penda of Mercia instead. Penda mounts another attack of Bernicia.

654 - King Penda of Mercia and his armies invade East Anglia and kill King Anna. The King is buried at Blythburgh and a monastery is founded at Iken to commemorate his life. Anna's brother, Aethelhere, succeeds as King of East Anglia and accepts Mercian rule. St. Cedd returns to Northumbria to be consecrated as Bishop of Essex, with his seat in St. Paul's, London. He is given land by King Aethelwald of Deira on which he founds Lastingham Priory.

c.654 - Foundation of the first religious community at Waltham Abbey, with a wooden church.

655 - King Penda of Mercia and a united Mercian and British army march on the Bernicians. Oswiu of Bernicia, with an army only a third the size, retreats to Stirling, the most northerly city in his kingdom. It lay in the oppressed sub-Kingdom of Manau-Gododdin. From here, Oswiu sends envoys to offer Penda money in return for holding off his armies. Penda appears to have taken the cash and distributed it amongst his British allies. However, having been taken from the oppressed Northern British in the first place, this is viewed as a restitution of rightful property. Penda and his allies invade Bernicia anyway, and the two armies meet at the Battle of Winwaed. Kings Cadafael Cadomedd of Gwynedd and Aethelwald of Deira, however, withdraw before the battle begins. This contributes to Penda's defeat and he and his ally, Aethelhere of East Anglia, are both killed in the fighting. Aethelhere's brother, Aethelwold, succeeds to the East Anglian throne. King Oswiu's son, Ecgbert is released by the Mercians. The Bernicians overrun Mercia, but allow Penda's son, Peada, to continue to rule in Middle Anglia, probably due to his Christianity. King Peada helps the Mercian nobleman, Saxulf, to found Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey. The latter becomes the first Abbot. Bishop (& Saint) Finan of Lindisfarne sends St. Diuma to be the first Bishop of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. Oswiu's daughter, Aelfflaed, is given as a novice to her second cousin, St. Hilda, Abbess of Hartlepool, in compliance with a promise King Oswiu had made.

656 - King of Oswiu of Bernicia invades Pengwern and kills King Cynddylan, and his brother, King Eluan of Powys, in battle. The Pengwernian Royal family flee to Glastening. Mercians take control of Pengwern and may have invaded Powys. Murder of King Peada of Middle Anglia through the treachery of his wife. Direct Northumbrian rule of all Mercia.

c.656 - King Aethelwald of Deira is removed from office by his uncle, King Oswiu of Bernicia, and replaced by the latter's son, Ealhfrith, as sub-king in a united Northumbria.

657 - The foundation of Whitby Abbey. St. Hilda and her cousin, Princess Aelfflaed, move from Hartlepool to Whitby, where St. Hilda is made Abbess. King Edwin of Deira's body is transferred to Whitby, where he is made a saint. The foundation of Ripon Abbey by monks from Melrose. St. Eata, Abbot of Melrose becomes first Abbot of Ripon.

658 - The Ealdormen of Mercia rebel against Northumbrian domination and re-establish their independence under Penda's son, Wulfhere. Death of Bishop Diuma of Mercia, Lindsey and Middle Anglia. He is buried at Charlbury. King Cenwalh and the Wessex Saxons make a push against Dumnonia (possibly under a King Culmin). They are victorious at the Battle of Penselwood and the Dumnonia-Wessex border is set at the River Parrett. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria.

c.658 - St. Etheldreda, daughter of the late King Anna of East Anglia, marries King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. The East Anglians gain rule of this area of Middle Anglia.

660 - King Sigeberht II of Essex is murdered by his brothers, Swithelm and Swithfrith, and other kinsmen for being "too ready to pardon his enemies" the Christians. St. Cedd flees north to the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia. Swithelm becomes King of Essex, possibly with Swithfrith as joint-monarch for a period. King Cenwalh of Wessex becomes unhappy with his local Bishop, St. Agilbert of Dorchester, as he does not speak West-Saxon, and splits the See of Wessex in two. Wine becomes the first Bishop of Winchester. Agilbert resigns and goes to Northumbria. The Mercians take control of Dorchester and appoint Aetla as Bishop. Death of King Talorcan I of the Picts, possible overthrow of Northumbrian overlordship in the kingdom. King Merewalh of Magonset is converted to Christianity.

c.660 - King Ealhfrith of Deira begins to follow a religious policy independent of his father, King Oswiu of Northumbria, by rejecting the ways of the Ionian Church in favour of those of Rome. Foundation of the monastery of Repton, by monks from Peterborough. King Merewalh of Magonset founds Leominster Priory.

661 - King Cenwalh of Wessex invades Dumnonia. He is victorious at the Battle of Posbury. Saxon settlers found Somerset in Eastern Dumnonia. Death of the Wessex sub-King, Cenberht. He is probably succeeded by his son, Caedwalla. King Wulfhere of Mercia and his army sack the Berkshire Downs around Ashdown and move south to conquer the Meonware and the Isle of Wight. St. Wilfred is given Ripon Abbey by King Aldfrith of Northumbria. St. Eata is removed and Wilfred becomes Abbot. Death of Bishop Finan of Lindisfarne. He is later revered as a saint and succeeded by St. Colman.

c.662 - King Swithelm of Essex is converted to Christianity and baptised by St. Cedd at the Court of King Aethelwald of East Anglia who acts as his sponsor. East Anglia may have held some sort of overlordship over Essex at this time.

663 - Bishop Wine of Winchester moves the Bishop's Seat north again to Dorchester and the Mercian Bishop Aetla is removed.

c.663 - Probable invasion of Pictland by King Oswiu of Northumbria. He establishes overlordship of, at least, the Southern Pictish sub-kingdoms of Fortriu and Fib (and possibly Circinn).

664 - The Synod of Whitby is hosted by St. Hilda. It is called to discuss whether the Northern British should comply with the doctrines of Rome, rather than follow the Irish Celtic practices of Iona. Bishop (& Saint) Colman of Lindisfarne, Abbess (& Saint) Hilda of Whitby and Bishop (& Saint) Cedd of Essex speak for the established Celtic ways (with Cedd as interpreter). They are opposed by Abbot (& Saint) Wilfred of Ripon and the former Bishop (& Saint) Agilbert of Dorchester. The latter are triumphant and St. Colman resigns his See in protest. He is replaced by Tuda who dies of the Plague soon afterward. Tuda is then succeeded as Abbot, by St. Eata former Abbot of Ripon who brings his prior, St. Cuthbert, from Melrose Abbey to Lindisfarne. St. Wilfred is appointed Bishop of Northumbria and transfers the See from Lindisfarne to York. Bishop Cedd of Essex also dies of Plague, along with his brother, Cynebil, at his foundation of Lastingham Priory. Cedd is buried there and later revered as a saint. He is succeeded, as Abbot, by his brother, St. Chad, but the See of Essex at London remains vaccant. Death of King Earconbert of Kent. He is succeeded by his son, Ecgbert I, who promptly has his cousins, Aethelred and Aethelbert murdered in order to secure his position. They are subsequently revered as saints. A great plague sweeps the country. Death of King Aethelwold of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his nephew, Eadwulf. Death of King Tondberht of South Gyrwe. His widow, St. Etheldreda, marries Prince Ecgfrith of Northumbria.

c.664 - King Oswiu of Northumbria removes his son, King Ealhfrith, from his throne in Deira. The Bernician throne controls all of Northumbria.

665 - Death of King Swithelm of Essex. He is succeeded by his cousins, Sighere and Sebbi. The followers of King Sighere of Essex apostasize. King Sebbi of Essex remains Christian. Conflict between the two monarchs appears to have been exacerbated by the struggle for overlordship between Mercia and Wessex. Sighere supports the latter, Sebbi the former. King Wulfhere of Mercia eventually establishes himself as overlord of Essex (and London). Bishop Jaruman of Mercia is despatched with Christian missionaries to reconvert the people of Essex. Wulfhere insists that King Sighere of Essex marry his niece, St. Osyth, daughter of sub-King Frithuwold of Surrey. St. Wilfred claims there is no-one with the authority to consecrate him as Bishop in Britain and so travels to Compiegne (France) to be enthroned by the Archbishop of Paris. Overwhelmed by the oppulance of the Frankish Church, Wilfred delays his return. King Oswiu of Northumbria becomes impatient and deposes him as Bishop of York in favour of Abbot Chad of Lastingham. St. Chad travels south to be consecrated by Archbishop Deusdedit of Canterbury, but finds he has died of the Plague. His successor, Wigheard, is journeying to Rome for consecration. Bishop Ithamar of Rochester is also near to death and the only available Bishop is Wine of Dorchester. St. Chad is consecrated Bishop of York by Bishop Wine of Dorchester along with two Welsh Bishops called in to make up the compulsorary threesom. The authority of the latter are disputed by the Saxon Church.

666 - St. Wilfred eventually returns to Britain but is shipwrecked in Sussex. When he finally reaches Northumbria, he finds he has been deposed and is forced to retire to Ripon, as Abbot. He then embarks on a mission through Mercia. St. Eorcenwald founds Chertsey and Barking Abbeys.

667- Death of Bishop Jaruman of Mercia. His See becomes vaccant.

668 - Death of Archbishop-Elect Wigheard of Canterbury of the Plague while returning from his consecration in Rome. He is succeeded by Theodore.

669 - Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury arrives in Britain and, because of his irregular consecration, removes St. Chad from the Bishopric of York. St. Wilfred is reinstated as Bishop of York and Chad humbly returns to Lastingham. King Wulfhere of Mercia later asks the Archbishop for a prelate to replace the late Bishop Jaruman. St. Chad is appointed and he establishes the See at Lichfield. King Ecgbert I of Kent grants the old Saxon Shore Fort at Reculver to a priest named Bassa in order to found a religious community there.

c.669 - King Ecgbert I of Kent loses the overlordship of Surrey to King Wulhere of Mercia.

670 - Death of King Oswiu of Northumbria. He is buried at Whitby Abbey and succeeded by his son, Ecgfrith, who appoints his brother Aelfwine as sub-King of Deira. Both are accepted by the Deirans as maternal grandsons of the late King Edwin of Deira. Bishop Wine of Dorchester falls out with King Cenwalh of Wessex and leaves his Bishopric. St. Agilbert is invited back, but declines. His nephew, Leuthere, succeeds in his place. Bishop Wine buys the See of London from King Wulfhere of Mercia. This has been vaccant since St. Cedd's death. The move is not popular amongst other churchmen

c.670 - King Wulfhere of Mercia hands the Meonware and the Isle of Wight over to his new ally, King Aethelwalh of Sussex. Wulfhere sponsors Aethelwalh's conversion to Christianity and the latter marries Princess Eafa, daughter of King Eanfrith of Hwicce, another Mercian sub-king. Mercian missionaries arrive in Sussex and found the monastery at Bosham. Death of King Merewalh of Magonset. He is buried at Repton and probably succeeded by his son, Merchelm

672 - Death of King Cenwalh of Wessex. His sub-Kings divide the kingdom amongst themselves, though his widow, Queen Seaxburh, does manage to establish some claim to overlordship. St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, completes his stone buildings at Ripon Abbey, including a crypt. Large numbers of Royalty and nobility attend its consecration. Wilfred encourages Queen (& Saint) Etheldreda of Northumbria to enter the religious life. She leaves her husband and becomes a nun at Coldingham Priory. The Synod of Hertford is held. Death of Bishop Chad of Lichfield of the Plague. He is buried in Lichfield Cathedral and later revered as a saint. Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury takes advantage of Bishop Bisi of Dunwich's illness to force him to resign. Theodore divides the see in two, based upon Dunwich and (probably North) Elmham, under Aecce and Beaduwine respectively.

673 - Death of King Ecgbert I of Kent. He is succeeded by his brother, Hlothere. St. Etheldreda returns to East Anglia and founds the Abbey of Ely, with herself as Abbess. On her journey, she founds a religious community at West Halton and probably Flixborough also. Miraculous occurrences while St. Etheldreda stops at Stow encourage her former husband, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, to found a church and religious community there too. Birth of the Venerable Bede. Death of King Domangart of Dalriada. He is succeeded by his nephew, Maelduin, who probably submits to King Ecgfrith of Northumbria as his overlord.

c.673 - King Frithuwold of Surrey flourishes under Mercian domination. The marriage of his daughter, St. Osyth, to King Sighere of Essex breaks down. Osyth desires the religious life and flees from the Royal Essex Court to Bishop Beaduwine at North Elmham, where she becomes a nun. Her husband accepts the situation and grants her land at Cicc where she founds St. Osyth's Priory. Sub-King Coenred of Dorset flourishes. The Picts revolt against Northumbrian overlordship. King Ecgfrith marches north and, with the help of his under-king, Beornhaeth, he defeats them in Manau-Gododdin. King Drest of the Picts is ousted.

674 - Queen Seaxburh of Wessex is removed from power by her late husband's second cousin, Cenfus. King Cenfus dies within the year and is succeeded by his son, Aescwine. Death of King Eanfrith of Hwicce. King Eanhere contines to rule alone. St. Etheldreda, former Queen of Northumbria, gives large areas of land to St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, to found Hexham Abbey. He builds three stone churches there, including one with a crypt. Her husband, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, similarly gives land to St. Benedict Biscop, sometime Abbot of St. Augustine's, Canterbury, to found an abbey at Monkwearmouth. Benedict sends for Frankish stonemasons to build his new church.

c.674 - King Wulfhere of Mercia leads an army against King Ecgfrith of Northumbria, but is defeated in battle and forced to submit to Northumbrian overlordship.

675 - King Aescwine of Wessex checks the military advance of King Wulfhere and his Mercian army at the Battle of Biedanheafde. Death of King Wulfhere of Mercia. He is succeeded by his brother, Aethelred I, and, nominally at least, by his son, Berthwald, who takes on overlordship of the Hwicce and Wessex border area as sub-King, perhaps of Hendrica and Chilternset. King Aethelred of Mercia founds the monastery at Breedon-on-the-Hill on the site of St. Hardulph's hermitage. King Hlothere re-establishes Kentish supremacy in London. Death of King Eanhere of Hwicce. He is succeeded by Osric. King Osric establishes the Bishopric of the Hwicce at Worcester and founds Bath Abbey. Prince Hean, nephew of sub-King Cissa of Berkshire, founds Abingdon Abbey. Death of Bishop Wine of London. He is succeeded by St. Eorcenwald.

676 - Death of King Aescwine of Wessex. He is succeeded by his cousin, Centwine, brother of the late King Cenwalh. King Aethelred of Mercia invades Kent in an attempt to enforce overlordship and diminish Kentish influence in Surrey and London. His armies cause so much destruction to the diocese of Rochester that the see is abandoned. St. Aldhelm founds Malmesbury Abbey on the site of the hermitage of his old tutor, St. Maildulf.

678 - St. Wilfred, Bishop of York, is at the height of his power and owns vast estates throughout Northumbria. Unhappy at Wilfred's interference in his marriage, King Ecgfrith of Northumbria conspires with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury to have him banished from Northumbria. The Bishopric is divided between Abbot (& Saint) Eata of Lindisfarne who is given Hexham, and Bosa, a monk of Whitby, who is given York. Eadhaed is given Lindsey. Wilfred travels to Rome to protest.

679 - The Synod of Hatfield is held. The armies of King Aethelred I of Mercia and King Ecgfirth of Northumbria clash at the Battle of the Trent. Sub-King Aelfwine of Deira is killed in the fighting and Mercia retakes Lindsey. Bishop Eadhaed of Lindsey is expelled. He becomes Abbot of Ripon. Northumbria is properly united. King Osric of Hwicce founds the Abbey of St. Peter in Gloucester with his sister, Cyneburg, as the first Abbess. Death of Abbess Etheldreda of Ely, former Queen of both South Gyrwe and Northumbria. She is buried at Ely Cathedral, succeeded by her sister Princess Seaxburh of East Anglia, and later revered as a saint

c.679 - King Aethelred I of Mercia marries Princess Osthryth, sister of King Ecgfrith of Northumbria.

680 - Death of Abbess Hilda of Whitby. She is buried in her Abbey and later revered as a saint. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria, with Papal support, but is imprisoned by King Ecgfrith of Northumbria and again exiled. St. Wilfred travels to Sussex. He discovers a small Irish community of Christians, under one Dicul at Bosham, but their attempts at converting the natives have been unsuccessful. Wilfred, however, manages to evangelise the people of both this country and the adjoining Meonware. The Venerable Bede enters the monastic school at Monkwearmouth.

c.680 - Princess Milburga, daughter of King Merewalh of Magonset, becomes a nun and founds Wenlock Priory where she becomes the first Prioress. Sub-King Caedwalla becomes overly ambitious in a power-struggle with King Centwine for Wessex overlordship. He is banished from Wessex and wanders through the Chilterns and then Andredsweald.

681 - King Aethelwalh of Sussex gives St. Wilfred lands in Selsey to found a cathedral. He becomes the first Bishop of Selsey. The diocese of Hexham is divided in two: St. Eata, Bishop of Hexham is transferred to Lindisfarne and Tunberht takes on Hexham. King Ecgfrith of Northumbria requests that the monks of Monkwearmouth found a new monastery at Jarrow. They build a complex of stone buildings there.

c.681 - The wandering ex-Wessex Sub-King, Caedwalla, seeks St. Wilfred as his spiritual father but does not convert to Christianity. Sub-King Bealdred flourishes in Somerset and Wiltshire.

682 - The West Saxons, led by King Centwine, drive "the British as far as the Sea" (possibly around Bideford).

683 - Death of King Sighere of Essex. His cousin, Sebbi, continues to rule alone.

c.683 - Abbot Cuthbald of Peterborough and Bishop Seaxwulf of Lichfield found several daughter Houses for Peterborough, including Brixworth Priory.

684 - King Ecgfrith of Northumbria sends troops, under Dux Berhtred, to ravage Meath in Ireland.

685 - Death of King Hlothere of Kent. He is succeeded by his nephew, Eadric. The exiled Prince Caedwalla of Wessex invades Sussex, kills King Aethelwalh, but is driven out by Kings Berhtun and Andhun. Abdication of King Centwine of Wessex in order that he may enter a monastery. He is succeeded by his distant cousin, Caedwalla, who manages to fully re-unite the sub-kingdoms of Wessex. Death of sub-King Cissa of Berkshire. He is buried in Abingdon Abbey. St. Cuthbert visits Carlisle. Bishop Tunberht of Hexham is deposed. Cuthbert is elected, but agrees to switch jobs with Bishop Eata of Lindisfarne instead. The Picts, under King Bruide ipe Bili, revolt against their Northumbrian overlords. Cuthbert advises King Ecgfrith of Northumbria not to invade Pictland. Undeterred, Ecgfrith engages the enemy at the Battle of Nechtansmere. The Picts, possibly with Scottish and Strathclyde Briton help, thoroughly defeat the Saxon guard. The latter permanently withdraw from Pictish and Scottish lands north of the Forth and also from much of the British territory north of the Tweed. Death of the childless King Ecgfrith of Northumbria. Supporters of the House of Aethelric secure the succession of his illegitimate half-brother, Aeldfrith, possibly with Irish and Scottish help. Aeldfrith is brought south from Iona, where he is studying. Death of King Osric of Hwicce. King Oshere continues to rule alone.

686 - King Caedwalla of Wessex establishes rule of Essex. With his new ally, Sighere of Essex, Caedwalla invades Kent. King Eadric of Kent is expelled and Caedwalla's brother, Mul, installed in his place. Sighere rules in West Kent. King Caedwalla of Wessex conquers Surrey and the Isle of Wight and executes the latter's king, Aruald, and his two brothers. He probably also overruns the Meonware. Caedwalla invades Sussex for a second time, kills King Berhtun of West Sussex and conquers the kingdom. King Andhun of East Sussex probably flees. St. Wilfred persuades King Caedwalla to let him evangelise the Isle of Wight. The former is later reconciled with Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury who persuades King Aeldfrith to reinstate Wilfred as Bishop of Hexham following the death of St. Eata.

687 - King Mul of Kent and twelve others are burnt to death during a uprising. His brother, King Caedwalla of Wessex ravages the kingdom in revenge. Death of ex-King Eadric of Kent. Bishop Bosa of York is removed and St. Wilfred is given York. St. John of Beverley is made Bishop of Hexham. Abbot Eadhaed of Ripon is also removed and the Abbacy restored to Wilfred. Bishop Cuthbert of Lindisfarne resigns his office and retires to his hermitage on Inner Farne where he dies. He is buried in Lindisfarne Priory and later revered as a saint. Wilfred of Ripon temporarily administers the See of Lindisfarne.

688 - Conversion of King Caedwalla of Wessex, who goes on a pilgrimage to Rome. The subsequent power vacuum is filled by Ine, the son of his second cousin, sub-King Coenred of Dorset. King Aethelred establishes Mercian dominance over most of Southern England. He installs Oswine, a minor member of the Kentish Royal family (and second cousin of King Eadric), as King of Kent. Wessex retains Surrey. Prince Swaefheard of Essex is given West Kent. Eadberht is appointed Bishop of Lindisfarne.

689 - Prince Oswald, brother of King Oshere of Hwicce, founds Pershore Abbey.

690 - King Oswine of Kent is toppled by Wihtred the brother of the late King Eadric of Kent. King Wihtred takes lands north of the Thames in revenge against the treacherous East Saxons. Death of Archbishop Theodore of Canterbury. He is succeeded by Berhtwald.

691 - St. Wilfred, Abbot of Ripon, tries to make himself Bishop of all Northumbria. King Aeldfrith of Northumbria seizes many of his Ripon Abbey estates and proposes to create a new Bishopric there. Wilfred is banished and flees to Mercia where King Aethelred I makes him Bishop of Leicester. Bosa is restored to the Bishopric of York.

692 - King Ine of Wessex installs his kinsman, Nothelm, as King of Sussex.

693 - Death of Bishop Eorcenwald of London. He is buried in St. Paul's, and later revered as a saint. Death of King Oshere of Hwicce. He is succeeded by four apparent joint-kings: Aethelberht, Aethelweard, Aethelric and Osred.

c.693 - King Ine of Wessex establishes his West Saxon Law Codes.

694 - King Ine of Wessex attacks Kent and extorts 30,000 pence from its people in recompense for the murder of its late king, Mul.

c.694 - Death of sub-King Coenred of Dorset, father of his overlord, King Ine of Wessex.

695 - Death of King Sebbi of Essex in London. He is succeeded by his sons, Swaefred and Sigeheard, as joint-monarchs.

c.695 - King Aeldfrith of Northumbria marries Princess Cuthburh, daughter of King Ine of Wessex.

697 - Murder of Queen Osthryth of Mercia by her own noblemen. She is buried at Barney Abbey and later revered as a saint.

698 - Dux Berhtred is killed leading a Northumbrian army against the Picts.

700 - St. Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, attends a Synod in Wessex. He sends King Gerren of Dumnonia a letter insisting that his kingdom's Celtic Church comply with Rome, as agreed thirty-six years before at Whitby.

c.700 - Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria enters religious life. St. Ecgwine, Bishop of Worcester, and his swineheard found Evesham Abbey. King Ine of Wessex begins to dispense with Wessex sub-kings and replace them with ealdormen. Hamwic emerges as a major Wessex trading town. Re-foundation of the British religious community in Wareham at St. Mary's Nunnery.

702 - Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury calls the Synod of Austerfield to decide the rights of St. Wilfred, some-time Bishop of York. St. Wilfred is offered Ripon Abbey if he will relinquish his claims as a Bishop. Wilfred rejects this and appeals to Rome once more.

703 - St. Wilfred travels to Rome again and is supported in his struggle to retain his See of York by the Pope.

704 - King Aethelred I of Mercia retires to the Abbey of Bardney as its Abbot. He nominates his nephew, Coenred, as King. St. Wilfred returns to Northumbria. Death of King Aeldfrith of Northumbria. The throne is seized by one Eadwulf, of unknown descent. St. Wilfred moves to support the new monarch, but his advances are rejected and he instead falls in with the camp of the late King's young son, Osred, and Dux Berhtfrith.

705 - Prince Osred of Northumbria and his party defeat the usurper, Eadwulf, at the Battle of Bamburgh. He becomes King Osred I at the age of nine. King Ine of Wessex becomes estranged from the Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex who are sheltering exiled rivals to the Wessex throne. At the Synod of Brentford, the latter agree to banish the exiles in return for Ine not attacking their kingdom. Surrey is transferred from the Diocese of London to Winchester. Death of Bishop Headdi of Winchester. The See is divided between Daniel at Winchester and St. Aldhelm, Abbot of Malmesbury, at Sherborne.

706 - Archbishop Berhtwald of Canterbury, is obliged by the Pope's insistence, to call the Synod of the River Nidd. St. Wilfred is officially recognised as Bishop of Hexham and Abbot of Ripon. St. John of Beverley, the previous Bishop, is transferred to York.

c.707 - Mercia surfers from attacks by their Welsh neighbour.

709 - Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex share power with Offa, son of King Sigehere. King Coenred of Mercia abdicates the throne and journeys to Rome to become a monk. King Offa of Essex accompanies him. Ceolred, his cousin, succeeds to the Mercian throne. Dynastic rivalries lead to the banishment of their second cousin, Prince Aethelbald, who flees to the East Anglian controlled Crowland Fens. Bishop Wilfred of Hexham dies at Oundle and is buried at Ripon Abbey. He is later revered as a saint.

710 - Kings Ine of Wessex and Nunna of Sussex clash with King Gerren of Dumnonia after which Ine manages to establish a fortress at Taunton. St. Boniface becomes King Ine's envoy to the Archbishop of Canterbury.

711 - Dux Berhtfrith leads a Northumbrian campaign against the Picts and defeats them in Manau Gododdin.

713 - Death of King Eadwulf of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his brother, Aelfwald. Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria founds a monastery at Wimborne.

715 - Kings Ine of Wessex and Coelred of Mercia clash at the Battle of Wodensbarrow. Supposed foundation of Tewkesbury Abbey on the site of an ancient hermitage, by two noble brothers named Oddo and Doddo.

c.715 - Abbot Ceolfrith of Wearmouth & Jarrow advises King Nechtan of the Picts concerning adoption of the ways of the Roman Church. Death of Kings Swaefred and Sigeheard of Essex. They are succeeded by Swaefbert. Death of St. Guthlac. King Ine of Wessex faces rebellion within his kingdom.

716 - While feasting, King Coelred of Mercia collapses and dies. He is succeeded by Coelwald, probably his brother. Prince Aethelbald returns to Mercia from the Crowland Fens and seizes the throne from King Coelwald. King Osred I of Northumbria is killed in combat, possibly by the Picts in Manau Gododdin. The throne is seized by his distant cousin, Coenred, of the House of Ocga.

718 - Death of King Coenred of Northumbria. The throne is taken by Osric, probably a younger brother of the late King Osred I. Death of Prince Ingild, brother of King Ine of Wessex.

c.720 - King Ine of Wessex builds a church at Glastonbury Abbey.

721 - King Ine slays Prince Cynewulf, an unknown relation making a push for the throne. Death of John of Beverley, Bishop of York. He is buried in Beverley Minster.

722 - King Ine of Wessex attempts a takeover of Dumnonia. His armies are crushed and have to withdraw. The fortress at Taunton is demolished.

725 - Death of King Nunna of Sussex. The exiled Prince Ealdberht, possibly a nephew of King Ine of Wessex looking for recognition as his heir, seeks sanctuary in Sussex. Ine attacks the South Saxons and kills Ealdberht. Death of King Wihtred of Kent. The kingdom is divided between his three sons: King Aethelbert II as overking, King Eadbert in West Kent and Alric who dies soon afterward.

726 - Abdication of King Ine of Wessex, who goes to Rome. He is succeeded by his brother-in-law (and probably distant cousin), Aethelheard; but this is disputed by another distant cousin, Oswald.

727 - Former Queen Cuthburh of Northumbria, Abbess of Wimborne, dies at her Abbey and is buried there. Ine of Wessex founds a hospice for English pilgrims in Rome.

728 - Death of Ine of Wessex in Rome. He is buried in San-Spirito-in-Sassia in the district of Borgo and later seen as a saint.

729 - King Osric of Northumbria nominates Ceolwulf, a distant cousin and brother of his predecessor as his successor. The House of Aethelric is all but extinct and the House of Ocga in the ascendancy.

c.729 - The Northumbrians sign a peace treaty with the Picts.

730 - Death of Prince Oswald, rival claimant to the Wessex throne.

731 - The Venerable Bede completes his history of the Church in England. King Ceolwulf of Northumbria is seized by unknown opponents and forced to enter a monastery. His supporters subsequently restore him to the throne. Bishop Acca of Hexham is expelled from his See. These two events are almost certainly connected.

c.731 - The Mercians are expelled from Powys by King Elisedd of that kingdom.

733 - King Aethelbald of Mercia overruns a large portion of Somerset and wrests the county from Wessex control.

735 - Death of Bede. The See of York achieves archiepiscopal status.

737 - King Ceolwulf of Northumbria abdicates in favour of his cousin, Eadberht, and becomes a monk at Lindisfarne.

738 - Death of King Swaefbert of Essex. He is succeeded by Saelred, a minor member of the Royal Family.

740 - Death of King Aethelheard of Wessex. He is succeeded by a distant kinsman, Cuthred. King Eadberht of Northumbria attacks the Picts. King Aethelbald of Mercia takes advantage of his absence and ravages Southern Northumbria. Internal struggles re-emerge in Northumbria with the murder of Earnwine, son of the late usurping King Eadwulf.

c.740 - Death of King Mildfrith of Magonset. He is replaced by a Mercian Ealdorman. King Aethelbald of Mercia takes control of Berkshire from Wessex.

743 - Kings Aethelbald of Mercia and Ceolred of Wessex join forces to attack Gwent and Powys. St. Wihtburh, youngest daughter of the late King Anna of East Anglia, dies at East Dereham Abbey.

c.744 - Construction of Wat's Dyke. The border between Mercia and Powys is set there.

746 - Death of King Saelred of Essex. He is succeeded by Swithred, grandson of King Sigeheard.

748 - Death of King Eadbert of West Kent. He is succeeded by his sons, Eadbert and Eardwulf.

749 - Death of King Aelfwald of East Anglia. He is succeeded by Hun, Beorna and Alberht. Relationship unknown. Beorna emerges as the dominant monarch. King Aethelbald of Mercia calls the Synod of Gumley and agrees to exempt monasteries from Royal service.

750 - Dynastic unrest in Northumbria. King Eadnberht imprisons Bishop Cynewulf of Lindisfarne at Bamburgh and besieges Prince Offa, son of the late King Aeldfrith in Lindisfarne Priory. Almost dead from hunger, he is eventually dragged from sanctuary.

752 - King Eadberht of Northumbria takes Kyle from King Dumnagual of Strathclyde, on the death of the latter's father, Teudebur. King Cuthred of Wessex clashes with King Aethelbald of Mercia at the Battle of Burford and manages to throw off his claim to Mercian rule.

756 - Death of King Cuthred of Wessex. He is succeeded by his distant kinsman, Sigeberht. King Eadberht of Northumbria and King Angus I of the Picts successfully besiege King Dumnagual of Strathclyde at Dumbarton. However, Eadberht's entire force is wiped out, probably by the Britons, at the Battle of Newburgh-on-Tyne.

757 - King Aethelbald of Mercia is murdered by his own household in a coup by one Beornred. He is buried at Repton. King Beornred is quickly ousted by Aethelbald's distant cousin, Offa. In the meantime, Mercian supremacy over Southern England is lost. King Sigeberht of Wessex acts unjustly and is removed from power by a council of nobles, in favour of his distant kinsman, Cynewulf. Sigeberht is given control of Hampshire, probably as ealdorman; but he murders one of his own men and is driven out and eventually suffers the same fate. First written record of Hampshire.

758 - King Eadberht of Northumbria abdicates in favour of his son, Oswulf. He becomes a monk at York. Death of King Swithred of Essex. He is succeeded by Sigeric I, son of the late King Saelred.

c.758 - King Cynewulf of Wessex retakes Berkshire from the Mercians. Death of King Beorna of East Anglia. Apparent succession of Prince Aethelred, a descendant of King Raedwald of East Anglia, as King.

759 - King Oswulf of Northumbria is murdered by his own household at Methel Wongtun. The Deiran patrician, Aethelwald Moll, who probably conspired in the regicide, seizes the throne. He may have been a descendant of King Oswine of Deira.

760 - The Battle of Hereford is fought probably between the Mercians and the Kingdom of Brycheiniog under King Nowy Hen.

c.760 - Abbot Guba expands the Abbey Church at Glastonbury.

761 - King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria faces a rebellion under a rival claimant to the throne named Oswine. The latter is defeated after the three day Battle of Eildon.

762 - Death of King Aethelbert II of Kent. His nephew, King Eadbert of West Kent, possibly rules all Kent for a time. Sigered, probably an East Saxon, succeeds in West Kent. Death of Eadbert, followed by the establishment of Eanmund as King of Kent. King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria marries Aethelthryth, at Catterick.

764 - King Offa of Mercia brings an end to the rule of Kings Eanmund and Sigered of Kent. He imposes Mercian overlordship on the kingdom, but allows a local king, Heabert, to rule there. Death of ex-King Ceolwulf of Northumbria. He is buried at Lindisfarne Priory and later revered as a saint.

765 - King Heabert of Kent is joined in ruling Kent by King Aethelbert II's son, Ecgbert II. King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria is deposed at Pincanheale, possibly by at a gathering of his own magnates. He enters a monastery. The throne is taken by Ealchred, a distant cousin of the late King Oswulf.

768 - Death of the former King Eadberht of Northumbria. In an attempt to strengthen his position, King Ealchred of Northumbria marries Princess Osgyfu, daughter of the late King Oswulf of Northumbria.

c.770 - King Ealchred of Northumbria takes an interest in continental missionary activities and sends Willehad to Frisia.

771 - King Offa of Mercia defeats the Haestingas and joins their little region to his sub-kingdom of Sussex.

772 - Possible deposition of King Ecgbert II of Kent with subsequent direct rule from Mercia.

773 - King Ealchred of Northumbria makes overtures of friendship toward King Charlemagne of the Franks.

774 - Unrest in the Northumbrian Church appears to lead to the expulsion of King Ealchred who is driven from York. He sails from Bamburgh into exile amongst the Picts. He is replaced by Aethelred I, the eleven year old son of the late King Aethelwald Moll of Northumbria.

776 - King Ecgbert II of Kent defeats the Mercians at the Battle of Otford and re-asserts himself as King of Kent.

778 - Unrest in Northumbria leads to King Aethelred I ordering the execution of three of his Duces. This considerably weakens his position.

779 - Offa, King of Mercia, becomes "King of All England". Offa defeats King Cynewulf of Wessex at the Battle of Bensington and seizes control of Berkshire, and probably London as well. Death of King Aethelred of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his son, Aethelberht. King Aethelred I of Northumbria is driven from the kingdom by Prince Aelfwald, son of the late King Oswulf who takes the throne as Aelfwald I.

c.780 - The rise of Aldwich as an important trading centre under Mercian control. King Offa of Mercia possibly establishes a Royal Palace at Aldermanbury, on the site of the old Roman Cripplegate fort and Amphitheatre.

781 - The King Charlemagne of the Franks summons the monk and scholar Alcuin of York to head the palace school at Aachen.

784 - Construction of Offa's Dyke, the artificial bank and ditch boundary between England and Wales, is begun at the command of King Offa of Mercia. Prince Ealmund of Wessex appears as King of Kent, possibly as a joint-monarch in some sort of alliance with his brother-in-law, King Ecgbert II.

785 - King Offa of Mercia re-asserts his control of Kent, deposes King Ecgbert II and establishes direct Mercian rule. Ecgbert's brother, Prince Eadbert Praen flees to the Court of King Charlemagne of the Franks and enters holy orders.

786 - The Yorkist scholar Alcuin accompanies the Papal Legates, Bishops George of Ostia and Theophylact of Todi, from France to the Mercian Royal Court. King Aelfwald I of Northumbria also receives Bishop George at a Northumbrian ecclesiastical council. The exiled Wessex noble, Cyneheard, brother of the late King Sigeberht of Wessex, ambushes King Cynewulf of Wessex while he is at Meretun with his mistress, and kills him. He is buried at Winchester. The Wessex nobles refuse to recognise Cyneheard as king. They execute him and, through the support of King Offa of Mercia, elect one Beorhtric instead. Cyneheard is buried at Axminster. Beorhtric's rival claimant to the Wessex throne, a very distant nephew of the late King Ine named Egbert, is driven across the Channel. Egbert settles at the Court of King Charlemagne of the Franks.

787 - Kings Offa of Mercia and Beorhtric of Wessex call the Synod of Chelsea, which is attended by the Papal Legate. There, Offa persuades the Papacy to grant Archiepiscopal status to the Mercian See of Lichfield. Bishop Hygeberht is thus elevated and given control of Hereford, Worcester, Leicester, Lindsey, Dunwich and Elmham, as well as Lichfield. In order to secure the Royal succession, Offa has Hygeberht crown his son, Ecgfrith, King of Mercia within his father's own lifetime, possibly at Brixworth. Offa founds Winchcombe Abbey. Archbishop Jaenberht of Canterbury is alienated from Mercia.

789 - Assassination of King Aelfwald I of Northumbria, probably at Chesters, at the instigation of Patrician Sicga. He is buried at Hexham Abbey and his sons, Oelf and Oelfwine, seek sanctuary in York Minster. The son of the late King Ealchred is installed as King Osred II of Northumbria. The Vikings attack Britain for the first time with three ships raiding Portland. Thinking them to be peaceful traders, High-Reeve Beaduheard of Dorchester rides out to greet them and his killed. King Beorhtric of Wessex marries Princess Eadburh, daughter of King Offa of Mercia, and accepts Mercian overlordship.

790 - King Aethelred I returns to Northumbria, captures King Osred II, forces him to become a monk and ejects him from the kingdom. He flees to the Isle of Man. Aethelred then faces a rebellion by a rival, named Eardwulf. The latter is captured and hanged outside the gates to Ripon Abbey. The body is taken into the Abbey where Eardwulf recovers and escapes to exile. King Charlemagne of the Franks begins to nurture Northumbrian friendship in order to circumscribe the power of King Offa of Mercia.

c.790 - King Offa of Mercia takes control of East Anglia. King Aethelberht mints his own coins in defiance of his overlord.

791 - Princes Oelf and Oelfwine of Northumbria are persuaded to leave their sanctuary in York Minster and are immediately forcibly drowned in Wonwaldremere at the instigation of King Aethelred I.

792 - King Aethelred I of Northumbria marries Princess Aelfflaed, daughter of King Offa of Mercia, at Catterick. Unrest in Northumbria tempts the exiled King Osred II back to his kingdom from the Isle of Man. His supporters dessert him and he is killed by King Aethelred's men at Aynburg. He is buried at Tynemouth Priory. King Offa of Mercia arranges coastal defences to fend off Viking attacks.

793 - Vikings attack Britain in a surprise raid on the monastic community at Lindisfarne Priory.

794 - King Aethelberht of East Anglia visits the Royal Mercian Court at Sutton Walls, with a view to marrying Princess Elfthryth. Her father, King Offa of Mercia, already unhappy with Aethelberht's rejection of his overlordship, has him executed, supposedly after the wicked Queen Cynethryth of Mercia accuses Aethelberht of making advances towards her. He is buried at Marden and later revered as a saint. East Anglia ruled directly from Mercia.

795 - King Offa of Mercia receives gifts from King Charlemagne of the Franks. Offa re-founds St. Albans Abbey, supposedly in thanks for overrunning East Anglia.

796 - King Offa of Mercia and King Charlemagne of the Franks seal a trading agreement and a marriage alliance is proposed. However, King Offa dies soon afterward. He is buried at Bedford and succeeded for a short time by his son, Ecgfrith, and then a distant cousin, Coenwulf. Prince Eadbert Praen leaves the church, returns to Kent and claims his throne. One Eadwald proclaims himself King of East Anglia, but is later ousted by King Coenwulf of Mercia. Direct rule from Mercia is re-established. King Aethelred I of Northumbria is murdered, probably at Corbridge, by his Ealdormen, Ealdred and Wada. Ealdorman Torhtmund slays Ealdred in revenge. The kingdom is plunged into confusion. The Patrician Osbald is placed on the throne, but is deserted by his supporters after only twenty-seven days. He flees from Lindisfarne to Pictland. Another faction, brings back King Aethelred I's old back-from-the-dead rival, Eardwulf, as King. King Eardwulf dismisses his wife and publicly takes a concubine. He is alienated from Archbishop Eanbald II of Canterbury. King Coenwulf of Mercia gives protection to Eardwulf's enemies. The Yorkist Scholar, Alcuin, is made Abbot of Saint-Martin in Tours by King Charlemagne of the Franks.

797 - King Coenwulf of Mercia tries to re-assert his domination of North-East Wales. He clashes with Welsh forces, including those of Powys and Dyfed, at the Battle of Rhuddlan. King Maredydd of Dyfed is killed in the fighting. The Mercians push on westward.

798 - The Mercians of King Coenwulf invade Gwynedd and kill King Caradog of that country in Snowdonia. The Mercians also defeat and capture King Eadbert Praen of Kent. King Coenwulf of Mercia introduces his brother, Cuthred, as a sub-King of Kent. King Sigeric I of Essex abdicates and departs for Rome. His son, Sigered, takes the throne. Ealdorman Wada attempts to return King Osbald to the Northumbrian throne. The Yorkist Abbot Alcuin of Saint-Martin, Tours writes to the exiled Osbald in order to dissuade him. Wada is defeated by King Eardwulf of Northumbria at the Battle of Billington Moor.

799 - Death of the former King Osbald of Northumbria as an Abbot in exile. He is buried in York. King Eardwulf of Northumbria worried about further rivals, has Ealdorman Moll, probably a relation of the late King Aethelwald Moll, killed.

800 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria has his men seize Prince Ealhmund, son of the late King Ealchred, and put him to death. He is buried at Derby and later revered as a saint.

c.800 - Retirement of Archbishop Hygeberht of Lichfield. He is succeeded by Aldwulf. King Coenwulf of Mercia is on better terms with the Archiepiscopate of Canterbury than his predecessor, and unsuccessfully attempts to have the Mercian Archiepiscopal See transferred to London.

801 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria invades Mercia in order to flush out his enemies taking refuge there under King Coenwulf. After a long campaign the nobles and Bishops on both sides negotiate a peace and the two Kings confirm this under oath.

802 - Death of King Beorhtric of Wessex. He is buried at Wareham. Prince Egbert returns to Wessex and is accepted as King. Ealdorman Aethelmund of Hwicce attacks Wessex. He is met by Ealdorman Weohstan of Wiltshire and both are killed at the Battle of Kempsford, though the men of Wiltshire are victorious. Aethelmund is buried at Deerhurst Abbey. Cunred, a relative of King Coenwulf of Mercia, is appointed Abbot of St. Augustine's, Canterbury. First written record of the county of Wiltshire.

803 - The Synod of Clofeshoh (possibly Brixworth) is held, at which the Archbishopric of Lichfield is demoted to an ordinary Bishopric, with Papal permission obtained by King Coenwulf of Mercia.

806 - King Eardwulf of Northumbria is expelled from his kingdom by one Aelfwald who takes the throne as King Aelfwald II. Eardwulf flees to the Imperial Frankish Court of Charlemagne and later visits Pope Leo III in Rome.

807 - Death of King Cuthred of Kent. Kent possibly under direct Mercian rule.

808 - With the active support of Emperor Charlemagne of the Franks and Pope Leo III, the exiled King Eardwulf of Northumbria is able to return to his kingdom and oust the usurper, King Aelfwald II.

809 - The Papal Legate is kidnapped by Vikings while sailing for Northumbria.

c.810 - Death of King Eardwulf of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son, Eanred. Canterbury Cathedral is probably demolished by Archbishop Wulfred of Canterbury and rebuilt on a more extravagant basilican scale

c.812 - King Sigered of Essex is reduced to the rank of Dux by his Mercian overlords.

818 - King Coenwulf of Mercia raids Dyfed.

821 - King Coenwulf of Mercia dies in Basingwerk, while preparing for another assault on Powys, and is buried in Winchcombe Abbey. His son, Cenelm, is chosen to succeed him, but he is killed, probably fighting the Welsh, though supposedly through the treachery of his jealous sister, Cwenthryth. He is also buried at Winchcombe Abbey and later revered as a saint. The Mercian throne passes to Coenwulf's brother, Ceolwulf I. One Athelstan makes a push for the East Anglian throne, but is halted by Ceolwulf I of Mercia.

823 - The Mercians invade Powys, but are beaten back by King Cyngen. They also destroy the Gwynedd capital, Degannwy. Death of King Ceolwulf I of Mercia. He is succeeded by Beornwulf, a descendant of the late King Beornred. Rise of King Baldred of Kent. His allegiance is uncertain, but he was propbably a relative of King Beornwulf of Mercia. Athelstan of East Anglia attempts to claim the East Anglian throne again.

825 - King Egbert of Wessex defeats the mighty Mercians at the Battle of Ellandon. He invades Kent and expels King Baldred. The former's son, Aethwulf, is installed as King of Kent. The sub-Kingdoms of Essex, Sussex and Surrey submit to Egbert. The Mercians are allowed to retain Berkshire and its boundaries are formally set. Athelstan of East Anglia begins to re-assert East Anglian independence. King Beornwulf of Mercia invades East Anglia, but is killed in battle. He is succeeded by one Ludecan. The men of Cornish Dumnonia clash with the Saxons of Devon at the Battle of Galford. First written record of the county of Devon in the Saxon form of the name.

827 - Athelstan of East Anglia establishes himself as King of that country after killing King Ludecan of Mercia in battle. Ludecan is succeeded in Mercia by Wiglaf, father-in-law (and probably distant cousin) of the late King Ceolwulf I's daughter.

828 - King Egbert of Wessex is recognized as overlord of other English Kings. He overruns Mercia, ousts King Wiglaf and attempts to rule directly from Wessex.

829 - King Eanred of Northumbria and King Ecgbert of Wessex clash at the Battle of the River Dore. Supposed submission of Northumbria to Wessex overlordship.

830 - King Wiglaf regains control of Mercia from Wessex.

c.833 - Rise of a Dux Sigeric II of Essex under Mercian patronage.

835 - The Isle of Sheppey comes under Viking attack.

836 - The army of King Egbert of Wessex is defeated by invading Vikings at the Battle of Carhampton.

838 - The British of Dumnonia join forces with the Vikings and attack Wessex. King Egbert defeats them at the Battle of Hingston Down.

839 - Death of King Egbert of Wessex & All England. His son, King Aethelwulf of Kent succeeds as King of Wessex. Aethelwulf's brother, Aethelstan, is made sub-King of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. Death of King Athelstan of East Anglia. He is succeeded by one Aethelweard.

840 - Viking raids turn away from Britain as the Frankish Empire is weakened by the Death of Emperor Louis the Pious. Death of King Wiglaf of Mercia. He is buried at Repton and briefly succeeded by his grandson, Wigstan. King Wigstan prefers the religious life and asks his widowed mother, Princess Elfleda to act as regent. A noble of the line of the late King Beornred, named Berhtric, wishes to marry this lady, but as he is a relative, Wigstan refuses the match. Berhtric murders Wigstan at Wistow. He is buried at Repton and later revered as a saint. The Mercian throne is seized by Berhtric's father, Beorhtwulf. First written record of the county of Dorset.

841 - Death of King Eanred of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son as King Aethelred II.

844 - King Aethelred II of Northumbria is expelled from the kingdom by one Raedwulf, who takes the throne. King Raedwulf is later killed in battle against the Vikings, along with many of his noblemen, during a major raid. King Aethelred II returns.

845 - The ship of King Ragnar Lothbrok of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) is supposedly blown off course and he lands in East Anglia. He is entertained at the Royal Court but internal politics leads to him being kidnapped and smuggled into Northumbria where he is executed in a pit of vipers. Glastonbury Abbey is probably damaged by Viking raiders. Ealdorman Eanwulf of Somerset defeats them at the Battle of the River Parrett. First written record of the county of Somerset.

c.846 - King Aethelred II of Northumbria sends military assistance to the Picts in their fight against invading Scots.

848 - Assassination of King Aethelred II of Northumbria. He is succeeded by Osbeorht, of unknown lineage.

849 - Birth of Prince (later King) Alfred of Wessex at Wantage.

850 - The Saxons inflict a major naval defeat on Viking raiders off the Sandwich Coast.

850-858 - King Kenneth mac Alpin of Alba (Scotland) invades Northern Northumbria six times, burning Dunbar and Melrose.

851 - Death of sub-King Athelstan of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. He is succeeded by his nephew, Aethelbert.

852 - Death of King Beorhtwulf of Mercia. He is succeeded by his kinsman, Burghred.

853 - Mercia and Wessex attack Powys.

855 - Death of King Aethelweard of East Anglia. He is the last of the Royal House of East Anglia and a successor from their homeland in Angeln is sent for. A distant cousin, Edmund, arrives and takes the throne.

858 - Death of King Aethelwulf of Wessex. He is succeeded by his son, Aethelbald.

860 - Death of King Aethelbald of Wessex. He is succeeded by his brother, sub-King Aethelbert of Kent, Essex, Surrey and Sussex. These latter kingdoms are formally merged with Wessex. The Viking Chief Weland, based in the Somme, sails to England and attacks Winchester. He is defeated and returns home. First written record of the county of Berkshire.

863 - King Osbeorht of Northumbria engages in a major dispute for Royal Power with a rival claimant named Aelle. He is variously described as Osbeorht's brother or specifically not of Royal descent. Osbeorht is badly defeated, though not expelled from his kingdom. King Aelle II wields power in Northumbria, but the Civil War continues.

865 - Death of King Aethelbert of Wessex. He is succeeded by his third son, Aethelred I. The 'Great Heathen Army' of Vikings, led by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia), invades East Anglia (supposedly in revenge for the execution of their father, King Ragnar Lothbrok). King Edmund of East Anglia buys peace with a supply of horses.

866 - 'The Great Heathen Army' of the Vikings ride north to Northumbria and mount a surprise attack on the City of York which they quickly capture.

867 - The rival monarchs of Northumbria, Aelle II and Osbeorht, join forces to expel the Vikings, but are thoroughly defeated at the Battle of York by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia). Osbeorht is killed, while Aelle II is supposedly captured and 'Spread-Eagled', for complicity in the murder of the invaders' father, King Ragnarr Lothbrok. Deira passes into Viking hands and what is left of the Northumbrian Royal Court flees north into Bernicia. Ecgberht I is established as a puppet King of Northumbria. The Viking armies make forays into Mercia. They are besieged at Nottingham by a joint Saxon force under Kings Aethelred I of Wessex and Burghred of Mercia. The Vikings withdraw to York.

869 - While Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) remains in York, his brothers, Ivarr the Boneless and Ubbe Ragnarrson, turn their 'The Great Heathen Army' on East Anglia once more. They are resisted by King Edmund.

870 - King Edmund of East Anglia is captured by Princes Ivarr the Boneless and Ubbe Ragnarson of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) who give him to their archers for use as target practice at Hellesdon. His head is then chopped off. He is buried in a small chapel near the place of his death and later revered as a saint. His brother, St. Edwold, flees to Cerne Abbas and becomes a hermit. The Vikings allow native sub-kings to rule in East Anglia for a while, starting with King Oswald. The Fens are ravaged by the invaders. The local people take refuge in Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey (Cathedral), but they are all slaughtered and the Abbey destroyed. Prince Ivarr the Boneless leaves for Northumbria and then Dublin where he becomes King. Coldingham Priory is destroyed by his Viking raiders. Ivarr's brother, Halfdan Wide-Embrace moves the Viking army to Wessex via the Thames and takes Reading which he makes his headquarters. The Vikings clash with Ealdorman Aethlewulf of Berkshire at the Battle of Englefield. The invaders are driven back to Reading and besieged by King Aethelred I and his brother, Alfred. Ealdorman Aethelwulf is killed in the fighting. The Danes are victorious and drive the English into the marshes.

871 - The English retreat onto the Berkshire Downs. Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) is joined by a 'Great Summer Army' under Prince Bagsecg and together they march out after the Saxons. Prince Alfred of Wessex leads the English against them in the Battle of Ashdown. His brother, King Aethelred I of Wessex, joins in after having been delayed at his prayers. The English are victorious and many Vikings, including Prince Bagsecg, are killed. Further, less fortunate, clashes, however, occur at the Battle of Basing and the Battle of Martin. King Aethelred I is mortally wounded at the latter and dies soon afterward. He is buried at nearby Wimborne Minster. He is succeeded by his brother, Alfred. King Alfred fights the Danes at the Battle of Wilton and his severely defeated.

872 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex buys a peace with the Vikings and they remove the 'Great Heathen Army' from Reading to London. Death of King Ecgberht I of Northumbria. The Vikings install one Ricsige in his place.

873 - The 'Great Heathen Army' of Vikings returns to York from where they attack Mercia. They capture the Royal capital at Repton and spend the winter there.

874 - From their base at Repton the Vikings drive King Burgred of Mercia into exile, conquer his kingdom and install his political opponent, Ceolwulf, as sub-King there. He was probably a member of the House of Ceolwulf I.

875 - 'The Great Heathen Army' of Vikings is divided. Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) takes a contingent back to York to consolidate his position there, while the 'Great Summer Army' moves on Cambridge under Guthrum, Oscetel and Anund. This latter force then returns to Wessex. King Alfred the Great fights them in a Naval engagement.

876 - The Vikings take Wareham under their leader, Guthrum, and King Alfred the Great of Wessex is forced to buy peace once more. The invaders retreat to Exeter. Death of sub-King Oswald of East Anglia. He is succeeded by one Aethelred. With the removal of the puppet King Ricsige of Northumbria, Prince Halfdan Wide-Embrace of Sjaelland & Uppsala (Scandinavia) formally establishes the Norse Kingdom of York with himself as its first monarch. The Viking settlement of the kingdom begins.

877 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex raises a large force of men and marches on the Viking Camp at Exeter. Although his navy is almost destroyed in a storm near Swanage, his army besieges Guthrum and forces the Vikings to flee north to Gloucester. The Northern Vikings take Eastern Mercia under direct rule. King Halfdan I Wide-Embrace of Norse York leaves for Ireland in an attempt to recover his brother's Dublin throne. He is killed and a probable interregnum follows in York.

c.877 - Eadulf of Bamburgh establishes himself as King of Bernicia. Cut-off from the rest of Saxon England, he is only recognised outside his kingdom as High-Reeve or Ealdorman of Bamburgh. He may or may not have been related to previous Kings of Northumbria. Eadulf allies himself with King Alfred the Great of Wessex.

878 - While spending the winter at Chippenham, King Alfred the Great of Wessex is surprised by the a Viking attack and he and his men flee into the Somerset Levels for safety. From his headquarters at Athelney, Alfred wages a guerrilla war against the Vikings. The supposed "Burning of the Cakes" episode occurs. The English gain a victory at Countisbury Hill and then Alfred decisively defeats the Vikings at Edington. Guthrum and his men are pushed back to Chippenham and besieged for three weeks. Eventually the Peace of Wedmore is agreed. England is divided between Wessex in the south and the Vikings in the Danelaw up north. Guthrum embraces Christianity, is baptised as Aethelstan and returns to East Anglia. The main Viking force winters in Fulham. King Ceolwulf II of Mercia clashes with the Welsh and kills King Rhodri Mawr of Gwynedd, Powys and Seisyllwg in battle.

879 - Death of sub-King Aethelred of East Anglia. The Vikings impose their own monarch on the kingdom. Guthrum takes the throne. King Alfred the Great of Wessex begins to build a large mobile army and naval fleet in order to counter any future Viking invasions. He also establishes defensive burghs around the country. Death of King Ceolwulf II of Mercia. One Aethelred takes the throne as King Aethelred II of the Mercians.

880 - The Mercian armies are defeated on the River Conwy by King Anarawd of Gwynedd in revenge for the death of his father, King Rhodri Mawr.

883 - Abbot Eadred of Carlisle travels across the Tyne (apparently at the request of the spirit of St. Cuthbert) and persuades the Viking Army there to elect a Christian slave named Guthfrith Hardicnutson as King of Norse York. The new king recognises the rights of the See of Chester-Le-Street.

884 - King Aethelred II of the Mercians marries Princess Aethelflaed, daughter of King Alfred the Great of Wessex, accepts Wessex overlordship and apparently demotes himself to become Lord of the Mercians.

885 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex summons Asser, a relative of Bishop Nobis of St. Davids, to the English Court. He agrees to spend six months of the year in the King's service. Asser helps to enhance the literary status of the English Court and also to negotiate the recognition of Alfred as overlord of the South Welsh Kings. The Vikings attack Rochester but are beaten back by King Alfred.

c.885 - Kings Hyfaidd of Dyfed, Elisedd of Brycheiniog and Hywel of Glywysing, being harassed by the armies of King Anarawd of Gwynedd, seek the protection of King Alfred the Great of Wessex and submit to his overlordship. King Anarawd of Gwynedd seeks an alliance with the Norse King Guthfrith I of York.

886 - King Alfred the Great of Wessex recaptures London from the Vikings. He moves the community from Aldwich to within the safety of the city walls and hands the place over to his son-in-law, Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians. Alfred becomes the supreme monarch in the country and "all the English submitted to him, except those who were under the power of the Vikings".

888 - Foundation of Shaftesbury Abbey. King Alfred the Great of England founds Athelney Abey in thanksgiving for his triumph over the Vikings.

c.888 - Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians is struck down with a debilitating illness. His wife, Princess Aethelflaed of Wessex joins him as joint ruler of Mercia.

889 - Lord Aethelred II and Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians begin their policy of fortifying Mercian cities as defensive burghs, starting with Worcester.

c.890 - Lord Aethelred II and Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians found the Priory of St. Oswald in Gloucester (probably originally dedicated to St. Peter).

c.893 - Asser, the Welshman, is made Bishop of Sherborne.

894 - King Anarawd of Gwynedd is forced to ask for help from King Alfred the Great of England when his kingdom is ravaged by the Norsemen. He submits to Alfred's overlordship, but the latter imposes oppressive terms and forces Anarawd to confirmation in the Christian Church with Alfred as godfather. Bishop Asser of Sherborne, writes his "Life of King Alfred".

895 - King Alfred the Great of England supplies King Anarawd of Gwynedd with English troops to assist in his successful reconquest of Seisyllwg on behalf of his brother, King Cadell. Death of King Guthfrith I Hardicnutson as King of Norse York. He is buried in York Minster.

899 - Death of King Alfred the Great of Wessex & All England. He is succeeded by his son, Edward.

901 - King Edward the Elder of Wessex takes the title "King of the Angles and Saxons". His mother, Dowager-Queen Ealhswith, founds the Nunnaminster at Winchester and retires into a religious life there. Death of King Aethelstan (alias Guthrum) of East Anglia. He is succeeded by his son, Eric.

902 - The Norsemen are expelled from Dublin. After a brief foray into Seisyllwg, a group, under one Ingimund, settle in the Wirral with the agreement of Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians.

905 - The Norse settler, Ingimund, and his men revolt against the Mercians and try to take the city of Chester. They are beaten off.

907 - Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians refortifies Chester against Viking attacks. King Edward the Elder of England founds Romsey Abbey. Ealdorman Aethelmar founds Cerne Abbey on the site of the hermitage of St. Edwold.

909 - Death of Bishop Asser of Sherborne. The See is divided and the new Bishoprics created at Wells, Crediton and Ramsbury & Sonning. King Edward the Elder of England and his sister, Princess Aethelflaed of Mercia, raid Danish East Anglia and bring back the body of St. Oswald in triumph. Aethelflaed presents it to her foundation in Gloucester.

910 - King Edward the Elder of England attacks the Joint-Kings Halfdan II, Eowils Ragnarson of Norse York. All three monarchs are killed at the Battle of Tettenhall and their kingdom crippled. Ragnall I Ivarrson, grandson of Ivarr the Boneless, seizes the throne after years of roaming the Western Seas.

911 - Death of Lord Aethelred II of the Mercians. He is buried in St. Oswald's Priory, Gloucester and is succeeded by his wife, Princess Aethelflaed of Wessex, as Lady of the Mercians. Her brother, King Edward the Elder of England insists on taking control of London and Oxford.

912 - The increasing thread of Viking invasions encourages Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians to expand her policy of building defensive burghs within her kingdom.

913 - King Edward the Elder of England recaptures Essex from the Danes. Death of High-Reeve Eadulf of Bamburgh. He is succeeded by his son, Ealdred I, who is almost immediately driven out by King Ragnall I Ivarrson of Norse York. Ealdred flees to the Court of King Constantine II of Alba.

914 - High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh persuades King Constantine II of Alba to invade Norse controlled Bernicia in an attempt to restore his position. The Vikings defeat the Scots at the First Battle of Corbridge. Other Vikings harry the Welsh Coast and move up the Severn. They capture Bishop Cyfeilliog of Ergyng, but are driven out by Mercian levies from Hereford and Gloucester.

c.915 - The body of St. Edmund of East Anglia is transferred to Bury St. Edmunds.

916 - English raiders attack the court of King Tewdr of Brycheiniog at Llangorse and make off with the Queen and thirty-three of her courtiers.

917 - Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians cements an alliance with Kings Constantine II of Alba and Constantine mac Aed of Strathclyde against Norse York. She captures the city of Derby, while her brother, King Edward the Elder of England, takes Towcester. Aethelflaed's armies also ravage Brycheiniog in revenge for the killing of the, now unknown, Abbot Ecgberht.

918 - Death of King Eric of East Anglia. East Anglia brought under Wessex rule. High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh again persuades King Constantine II of Alba to help him reclaim his position in Bernicia. They mount a second invasion of his now Norse controlled lands. The Vikings defeat the Scots again at the Second Battle of Corbridge, but take heavy casualties themselves. Ealdred probably manages to retake most of Northern Bernicia. Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians begins to intrigue with diaffected factions within the Norse Kingdom of York and peacefully overruns the Borough of Leicester. Her brother, King Edward the Elder of England, takes Stamford by force. King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and King Hywel Dda and Prince Clydog of Deheubarth submit to the overlordship of King Edward. Death of Lady Aethelflaed of the Mercians at Tamworth. She is buried in St. Oswald's Priory in Gloucester and nominally succeeded by her daughter, the twenty year old Princess Aelfwynn.

919 - Lady Aelfwynn of the Mercians is brought to the court of her maternal uncle, King Edward the Elder of England, and deprived of her authority in Mercia. King Edward formally annexes the country. The end of independent Mercian rule.

920 - High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh and his brother, Uhtred, submit to the overlordship of King Edward the Elder of England. Death of King Ragnall I Ivarrson of Norse York. He is succeeded by his brother, King Sigtrygg Caech of Norse Dublin.

924 - Death of King Edward the Elder of England at Farndon-upon-Dee. He is succeeded by his son, Athelstan, who becomes King of Wessex and effective ruler of most of England. His appointment is opposed by one Alfred of unknown origin.

c.924 - St. Eadburga, daughter of King Edward the Elder of England, enters the Nunnaminster at Winchester, at an extremely young age.

925 - King Athelstan is finally crowned at Kingston-on-Thames. He founds Bury St. Edmunds Abbey around the shrine of St. Edmund of East Anglia.

926 - Athelstan annexes Northumbria, and forces the kings of Wales, Strathclyde, the Picts, and the Scots to submit to him

927 - The border between England and Wales is set at the River Wye when Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Owain of Glywysing & Gwent submit to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England at Hereford. Death of King Sigtrygg Caech of Norse York. King Athelstan of England claims his kingdom and receives the submission of High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh. Practicalities probably actually meant that ealdred looked more towards King Constantine II of Alba as his overlord.

930 - Death of High-Reeve Ealdred I of Bamburgh. He is succeeded by his son, Osulf. High-Reeve Osulf attests a number of Wessex charters during his reign showing his close association with the English Court.

931 - Kings Morgan Hen of Glywysing & Gwent, Hywel Dda of Deheubarth and Idwal Foel of Gwynedd submit to the overlordship of King Athelstan of England and attend him at court.

933 - Prince Aelfweard, brother of King Athelstan of England, is drowned en route to France and buried at Saint-Bertin.

934 - King Tewdr of Brycheiniog attends the court of King Athelstan of England and signs English Land Charters. Kings Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Idwal Foel of Gwynedd and Morgan Mwynfawr of Morgannwg are compelled to accompany Athelstan on his campaign against King Constantine II of Alba.

937 - Battle of Brunanburh: Athelstan defeats alliance of Scots, Strathclyde Britons and Vikings, and takes the title of "King of all Britain"

c.937 - King Idwal Foel of Gwynedd distances himself from his English overlord.

939 - King Athelstan founds Muchelney Abbey. Death of King Athelstan at Gloucester. He is buried at Malmesbury Abbey and succeeded by his half-brother, Edmund the Magnificent.

942 - Kings Idwal Foel of Gwynedd openly rebels against the overlordship of the English monarchy. Both he and Llewelyn of Powys are killed fighting English armies.

945 - St. Dunstan becomes Abbot of Glastonbury.

946 - Edred, younger brother of Edmund, King of England (to 955); Dunstan is named his chief minister.

949 - King Hywel Dda of Deheubarth, Gwynedd & Powys attends the court of King Eadred of England.

954 - Death of King Eric Bloodaxe of Norse York. King Eadred of Wessex becomes King of All England. High-Reeve Osulf of Bamburgh is appointed Ealdorman of Northumbria.

955 - Kings Iago of Gwynedd, Owain of Deheubarth and Morgan Hen of Glywysing & Gwent attend the court of King Eadred of England. Edwy, son of Edmund, King of England (to 959).

c.955 - Archbishop Oda of Canterbury rebuilds Canterbury Cathedral.

956 - St. Dunstan is sent into exile by King Edwy.

957 - Mercians and Northumbrians rebel against King Edwy.

959 - Edgar the Peaceable, younger brother of Edwy, King of England (to 975).

960 - Death of Princess Eadburga, aunt of King Edgar the Peaceable of England, at the Nunnaminster in Winchester where is as a nun. She is buried there and later revered as a saint.

961 - Tavistock Abbey is founded by Ealdorman Ordgar of Devon.

963 - Death of Ealdorman Osulf of Northumbria. He is succeeded by his son, Waltheof I. Death of Bishop Brihthelm of Winchester. He is succeeded by St. Aethelwold, Abbot of Abingdon.

964 - Foundation of Milton Abbey.

966 - Re-foundation of Peterborough (Medshamstead) Abbey as a Benedictine Monastery by Bishop Aethelwold of Winchester.

967 - Re- foundation of Romsey Abbey by King Edgar of England and Ealdorman Aethelwold of Wessex, with St. Merewenna as Abbess.

969 - Foundation of Ramsey Abbey.

970 - Re-foundation of Pershore Abbey. It acquires relics of St. Eadburga from Winchester.

971 - St. Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, instigates massive building operations at Winchester. He extends the Old Minster westward with two enormous apses and a crossing tower to cover St. Swithun's external tomb and make it the centre of a 'shrine-church'. It supposedly rains there for "forty days and forty nights". Foundation of Crowland Abbey.

973 - After his coronation, King Edgar of England marches his army north to Chester. His navy meets him there via the Irish Sea. This show of strength persuades the Northern Kings to submit to his overlordship. Legend says he is rowed across the Dee by Kings Kenneth of Alba, Malcolm of the Cumbrians, Magnus of Man & the Isles, Donald of Strathclyde, Iago of Gwynedd, Princes Hywel of Gwynedd, Ithel and Siferth (the latter two of unknown origin). The Council of Winchester calls for English monastic reform and draws up a code of practice known as the Regularis Concordia. Foundation of Thorney Abbey.

974 - King Edgar gives English help to Prince Hywel in ousting his uncle, King Iago of Gwynedd from his kingdom. The tomb of St. Swithun is opened at Winchester Old Minster and his body dismembered. His head shrine is placed in the sacristy and his major shrine behind the high altar.

975 - Edward the Martyr, son of Edgar, King of England (to 978).

c.977 - St. Aethelwold, Bishop of Winchester, rebuilds the western end of Winchester Old Minster, with twin towers and no apses.

978 - Edward the Martyr murdered at Corfe Castle upon the orders of his step-mother; Aethelred II, the Unready (ill-counselled), younger brother of Edward the Martyr, King of England (to 1016). English troops are deployed on the Lleyn Peninsula on behalf of King Hywel of Gwynedd in order to prevent his uncle, Iago, invading with Viking allies from Dublin. St. Dunstan completes the cloisteral buildings and his western extensions to the Abbey Church of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury. The church is rededicated to St. Peter, St. Paul and St. Augustine.

980 - The Danes renew their raids on England attacking Chester and Southampton. Manx Vikings led by King Godfred I ally themselves with Prince Custennin of Gwynedd and raid Anglesey and the Lleyn Peninsula. Custennin is killed. Foundation of Amesbury Abbey.

983 - Ealdorman Aelfhere of Mercia allies himself with King Hywel of Gwynedd and together they attack the lands of Prince Einion of Deheubarth.

984 - Death of Bishop Aethelwold of Winchester. He is buried in Winchester Old Minster and later revered as a saint.

985 - The English kill King Hywel of Gwynedd by treachery.

987 - Re-foundation of Cerne Abbey.

c.988 - Manx Vikings, under King Godfred I, ravage Anglesey.

991 - Battle of Maldon: Byrhtnoth of Essex is defeated by Danish invaders; Aethelred II buys off the Danes with 10,000 pounds of silver (Danegeld).

992 - Aethelred makes a truce with Duke Richard I of Normandy.

993 - King Aethelred the Unready appoints Aelfhelm as Ealdorman of Northumbria in place of the aging Waltheof I. Re-foundation of Sherborne Abbey.

994 - Danes under Sweyn and Norwegians under Olaf Trygvesson sail up river Thames and besiege London; bought off by Aethelred.

995 - Uhtred, son of Ealdorman Waltheof I of Northumbria, establishes an episcopal see at Durham and moves the monastic community of Chester-Le-Street there. Foundation of Evesham Abbey.

c.1000 - Medshamstead is made into a Burgh. It soon becomes known as St. Peter's Burgh (Peterborough).

1003 - Sweyn and an army of Norsemen land in England and wreak a terrible vengeance.

1006 - Ealdorman Aelfhelm of Northumbria falls foul of King Aethelred the Unready who has him murdered.

1007 - Aethelred buys two years' peace from the Danes for 36,000 pounds of silver. Uhtred, son of Ealdorman Waltheof I of Northumbria, is appointed to his father's old position.

1011 - Thorkell the Tall and his brother, Hemming, plunder Canterbury, burn the city and the Cathedral, and make off with Archbishop Alphege to Greenwich. St. Alphage refuses to be ransomed and the Vikings throw ox-bones at him in a drunken orgee and kill him.

1012 - The Danes sack Canterbury: bought off for 48,000 pounds of silver.

1013 - King Sweyn Forkbeard of Denmark lands in England and is proclaimed king; Aethelred II the Unready flees to Normandy.

c.1013 - Archbishop Lyfing probably restores Canterbury Cathedral, adding porticus towers and a massive 'westwerk'.

1014 - The English recall Aethelred II the Unready as King on the death of King Sweyn Forkbeard; the latter's son, Canute (II), retreats to Denmark and turns his attention to annexing Norway.

1015 - King Canute II of Denmark & Norway again invades England; war between Danes and Saxons.

1016 - Edmund Ironside, son of Aethelred II the Unready of England, becomes King. He and King Canute II of Denmark & Norway meet on the Isle of Alney near Deerhurst and agree to divide the kingdom: Canute holds the north and Edmund Wessex; Edmund is assassinated; Canute takes the throne as King Canute the Great of England.

1017 - King Canute the Great divides England into four earldoms.

1019 - King Canute the Great marries the Dowager-Queen Emma, widow of Aethelred II. Canute gives the relics of St. Wigstan to Evesham Abbey. They are translated from Repton.

1026 - King Canute the Great's steward, Orc, founds Abbotsbury Abbey.

1035 - Death of Canute the Great of England, Denmark & Norway: his possessions are divided; Harold I Harefoot, becomes King of England (to 1040).

1040 - Hardicanute, King of England (to 1042); he dies of drink.

1042 - Edward the Confessor, son of Aethelred II, King of England (to 1066).

1046 - Sweyn, son of Earl Godwin of Wessex, attempts to marry Abbess Eadgifu of Leominster.

c.1050 - Abbot Wulfric of St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury embarks on a flamboyant programme of building-work at his abbey. He adds a further western chapel and bell-tower to the monastic complex and begins to join St. Mary's to the Abbey Church with a huge rotunda based on that at St. Benigne at Dijon.

1051 - Earl Godwin exiled (until 1052): he returns with a fleet and wins back his power.

1052 - Edward the Confessor founds Westminster Abbey, near London.

1053 - Death of Godwin: his son Harold succeeds him as Earl of Wessex. Earl Harold of Wessex begins a programme of building work at Waltham Abbey which includes the addition of a huge eastern crossing.

1055 - Harold's brother Tostig becomes Earl of Northumbria.

1058 - The See of Sherborne is joined to that of Ramsbury & Sonning.

1063 - Harold and Tostig subdue Wales.

1064 - Harold is shipwrecked in Normandy; while there, he swears a solemn oath to support William of Normandy's claim to England.

1065 - Northumbria rebels against Tostig, who is exiled

Anglo-Saxon culture

Anglo-Saxon architecture

Main article: Anglo-Saxon architecture

Anglo-Saxon architecture describes a period in the history of architecture in England, and parts of Wales, from the mid-5th century until the Norman Conquest of 1066.

There are few remains of Anglo-Saxon architecture, with no secular work remaining above ground. At least fifty churches are of Anglo-Saxon origin, with many more claiming to be, although in some cases the Anglo-Saxon part is small and much-altered, or confined to foundations and crypts.

Distinctive features of Anglo-Saxon architecture include rough brickwork, extremely thick walls and mostly arch windows, with a few square- or triangular-headed windows. Particularly in earlier examples, reused Roman work is common. The vast majority of buildings were wooden, but only a single wooden example survives.

Anglo-Saxon art

Main article: Anglo-Saxon art

Anglo-Saxon art covers the period from the time of King Alfred (871-899), with the revival of English culture after the end of the Viking raids, to the early 12th century, when Romanesque art became the new movement. Prior to King Alfred there had been the Hiberno-Saxon culture (the fusion of Anglo-Saxon and Celtic techniques and motifs) which had ceased with the Vikings.

Anglo-Saxon art is mainly known today through illuminated manuscripts. It includes the Benedictional of St. Æthelwold manuscript, which drew on Hiberno-Saxon art, Carolingian art and Byzantine art for style and iconography. A "Winchester style" developed that combined both northern ornamental traditions with Mediterranean figural traditions, and can be seen in the Leofric Missal (Oxford, Bodleian Library, MS Bodl, 579). The Harley Psalter was a knockoff of the Carolingian Utrecht Psalter—all of which underscore the larger trend of an Anglo-Saxon culture coming into increasing contact with, and under the influence of, a wider Latin Mediaeval Europe.

Manuscripts were not the only Anglo-Saxon art form, although they are the most numerous to have survived. Perhaps the best known piece of Anglo-Saxon art is the Bayeux Tapestry which was commissioned by a Norman patron from English artists working in the traditional Anglo-Saxon style. Anglo-Saxon artists also worked in fresco, ivory, stone carving, metalwork (see Fuller brooch for example]) and enamel, but few of these pieces have survived.

Anglo-Saxon language

Main article: Old English language

Anglo-Saxon, also called Old English, was the language spoken under Alfred the Great and continued to be the common language of England (non-Danelaw) until after the Norman Conquest of 1066 when, under the influence of the Anglo-Norman language spoken by the Norman ruling class, it changed into Middle English roughly between 1150-1500.

Anglo-Saxon is far closer to early Germanic than Middle English, i.e., it is less latinized, and retains many morphological features (nominal and verbal inflection) that were lost during the 12th to 14th centuries. The languge today which is closest to Old English is Frisian, which is spoken by a few hundred thousand people in the northern part of the Netherlands and Germany.

Before literacy in the vernacular "Old English" or Latin became widespread, the Runic alphabet, called the futhorc (also known as futhark), was used for inscriptions. When literacy became more prevelant a form of Latin script was used with a few letters derived from the futhork; 'eth', 'wynn', and 'thorn'.

The letters regularly used in printed and edited texts of OE are the following:

• a æ b c d ð e f g h i l m n o p r s t þ u w x y

with only rare occurrences of k, z.

Anglo-Saxon literature

Main article: Anglo-Saxon literature

Anglo-Saxon literature (or Old English literature) encompasses literature written in Old English during the 600-year Anglo-Saxon period of Britain, from the mid-5th century to the Norman Conquest of 1066. These works include genres such as epic poetry, hagiography, sermons, Bible translations, legal works, chronicles, riddles, and others. In all there are about 400 surviving manuscripts from the period, a significant corpus of both popular interest and specialist research.

The most famous works from this period include the poem Beowulf, which has achieved national epic status in Britain. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is a collection of important early English history. The poem Hymn from the 7th century is the oldest surviving written text in English.

Anglo-Saxon religion

Main article: Anglo-Saxon mythology

The Anglo-Saxon mythos was a Germanic mythology and closely related to Norse mythology.

Christianity (both Celtic and Roman forms) replaced the old gods in England around the 8th and 9th centuries AD. The Synod of Whitby settled the choice for the Roman form. As the new clerics became the chroniclers, the old religion was lost before it was recorded and today our knowledge of it is sketchy. One of the few recorded references is that a Kentish King would only meet the missionary St Augustine in the open air, where he would be under the protection of the sky god, Woden. Written Christian prohibitions on acts of pagan worship are one of our main sources of information on pre-Christian beliefs.

Remnants of the Anglo-Saxon gods remain in the English language names for days of the week:

• Tiw, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Tyr, the god of war: Tuesday
• Woden, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Odin, the one-eyed wise god of storms and the dead: Wednesday
• Þunor, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Thor, the thunder god: Thursday
• Frige, the Anglo-Saxon equivalent of Freya, the love-goddess: Friday

Use of the term "Anglo Saxon" today

It is a matter of debate as to whether the term Anglo-Saxon can be used as a synonym for English. On one hand there is the argument that says that there were further influxes of people in to England such as the Danes and Normans, as well as the Celts who migrated to England from the other parts of the British Isles, so the term is no longer valid. The other side of this argument is to say these people were relatively small in number and, particularly in the case of Danes and the Normans, were of similar ethnic origins as the Anglo-Saxons themselves, and so became immersed into the Anglo-Saxon "tribe".

In comparison, in Canada and the United States, the term "Anglo-Saxon" (often as White Anglo-Saxon Protestant or WASP) is used to describe people of English, Scottish and more recently, German, Scandinavian and other people of Northern European ethnicity; used predominantly to separate these populations from the Irish-Catholic cultural group, and French Canadians, and later Eastern and Southern European immigrants and their cultures.

"Anglo-Saxon" can also mean the original West Germanic component of the English language, often called Old English, as opposed to the especially large addition of Old Danish (eastern England), Old Norwegian (from Vikings of the Viken who settled on the West Coast of England) and many loanwords the language has obtained, especially from Romance languages.

For over a hundred years, "Anglo-Saxon" has been used as pertaining to the Anglophone cosmopolitan societies of predominantly Western character, (the United States, the British Isles, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa) describing their intellectual traditions and national characters, as opposed to "Gallic", "Lusitanic" or "Hispanic". Such usage is especially common in France. It is a wide ranging term, taking in the English-speaking world's language, culture, technology, wealth, influence, markets and economy.

See also

• Old English language
• Aelle of Sussex
• Gildas
• King Alfred
• Anglo-Saxon Chronicle
• Anglo-Saxon Attitudes
• St. Augustine
• Battle of Mons Badonicus
• The Venerable Bede
• Bretwalda
• King Canute
• Danegeld
• Danelaw
• Battle of Deorham
• Ceawlin of Wessex
• Ethelred the Unready
• Hengest
• Hereward the Wake
• Offa
• States in Medieval Britain
• Weregild
• Anglo-Saxon law
• Anglo-Saxon architecture
• Anglo-Saxon mythology
• Anglo-Saxon monarchs
• Anglophile
• Fuller brooch

External links

• Y Chromosome Evidence for Anglo-Saxon Mass Migration, Michael E. Weale,1, Deborah A. Weiss, Rolf F. Jager, Neil Bradman and Mark G. Thomas; Molecular Biology and Evolution 19:1008-1021 (2002)
  • UCL Anglo-Saxon presentation; presentation on Anglo-Saxon migration by Weal et al.
  • Genetics make Welsh distinct from the rest of the British Isles, Rhodri Clark, The Western Mail 11 October 2003 Journalistic response to Weale, et al.
  • English and Welsh are races apart; BBC, 30 June 2002. Journalistic response to Weale, et al.
• A Y Chromosome Census of the British Isles; Cristian Capelli, Nicola Redhead, Julia K. Abernethy, Fiona Gratrix, James F. Wilson, Torolf Moen, Tor Hervig, Martin Richards, Michael P. H. Stumpf, Peter A. Underhill, Paul Bradshaw, Alom Shaha, Mark G. Thomas, Neal Bradman, and David B. Goldstein Current Biology, Volume 13, Issue 11, Pages 979-984 (2003)
  • Y Chromosomes Sketch New Outline of British History; Nicolas Wade, New York Times 27 May 2003. Journalistic response to Capelli, et al. (2003)
  • Viking genetics survey results, BBC summary of Capelli et al.

References

• Chadwick, Hector Munro. Anglo-Saxons. 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica.

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• 1911 Britannica
• Anglo-Saxon England
• History of England