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The word Philosophy has a variety of meanings. Its etymology is from the ancient Greek word "Φιλοσοφία" (philo-sophia), which means "love of wisdom." It can mean a system of belief, values or tenets as in Buddhist philosophy, or the Tao; a body of philosophical literature that created over the centuries by a culture or civilization, as in 'Hindu philosophy'; a personal outlook or viewpoint, as in 'my philosophy of life'; truth found in mystical experience, or even alchemy and astrology, such as the philosopher's stone.

This article, however, concerns what is sometimes called 'academic philosophy'. This discipline involves the reasoned, systematic investigation of the nature of the universe and our place in it. It is different from science in that its results do not necessarily depend on observation or scientific experiment. It is also distinct from religion or mysticism in that its method of inquiry is entirely rational, and only assigns place to faith, insight, or intuition insofar as it can be subject to reasoned analysis.

It can also involve the critical investigation of the basic principles and concepts of intellectual disciplines (e.g. philosophy of mathematics). While its scope is wide (e.g. philosophy of sex), its core subjects are generally agreed to consist of:

• Philosophical logic, which is in part concerned with the relation between formal logic, the mind, ordinary language, and the world (or whether any such relations exist).
• Metaphysics, or the systematic and rational investigation of the nature of reality, particularly the question of what sorts of things can be said to have real existence.
• Epistemology – the theory of knowledge, its limits and its connection with belief.
• Ethics or the nature, meaning and logic of moral judgment.

Note that philosophy once had a wider scope. Early scientists, regardless of their field of study, called themselves 'Natural philosophers' (this is why at some universities scholars who have never studied philosophy are still awarded a 'PhD' or 'Doctor of Philosophy'). However, it is now sometimes thought that what distinguishes philosophy from the natural sciences is its "second order" nature: it thinks about rather than employs the concepts that we use to think about reality. Philosophy is "thinking about thinking". Template:Philosophy portal

Meaning and use of "Philosophy"

The discipline of philosophy once included all forms of knowledge, and all methods for attaining it. Early scientists, regardless of their field of study, called themselves "natural philosophers". But through the rise of universities and the separation of learning disciplines, philosophy has taken on more specialized meanings. Not all philosophers agree on what the word 'philosophy' means, variously contending between the following views of philosophy, for example:

• A method of rational inquiry, with the approaches used varying considerably. For instance, the Socratic method relies primarily upon asking questions while analytic philosophy applies logic and language in other ways.

• A particular subject matter. The scope of philosophical inquiry is diverse, and includes metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, and logic.

• A process. Goals of this process include providing an antidote to certain confusions of language, as Ludwig Wittgenstein proposed.

• An academic discipline, studied at universities and colleges worldwide.

The term can also refer to a worldview, to a perspective on an issue, or to the positions of a particular philosopher or school of philosophy. Popularly, it may also refer to a person's perspective on life (as in "philosophy of life") or the basic principles behind, or method of achieving, something (as in "my philosophy about driving on highways").

The phrase "a philosophical attitude" refers to a thoughtful approach to life. Reacting to a tragedy philosophically might mean abstaining from passionate reactions in favour of intellectual detachment. This usage arose from the example of Socrates, who calmly discussed the nature of the soul with his followers before drinking a deadly potion of hemlock, as ordered by an Athenian jury. The Stoics followed Socrates in seeking freedom from their passions, hence the modern use of the term stoic to refer to calm fortitude.

Branches of philosophy

Philosophers analyse and investigate such concepts as existence or being, morality or goodness, knowledge, truth, and beauty. Philosophers may ask critical questions about the nature of these concepts — questions typically outside the scope of other disciplines, such as science. Several major works of post-medieval philosophy begin by examining the nature of philosophy. Philosophers are motivated by specific questions such as:

• What is truth? How or why do we identify a statement as correct or false, and how do we reason? What is wisdom?
• Is knowledge possible? How do we know what we know? What is unknown? If knowledge is possible, what is known vs. unknown? How do we take what is "known" to extrapolate what is "unknown"?
• Is there a difference between morally right and wrong actions (or values, or institutions)? If so, what is that difference? Which actions are right, and which wrong? Are values absolute, or relative? In general or particular terms, how should I live? How is right and wrong defined? Is there an ultimate "ought"? Is there a normative value or objective that supercedes all others?
• What is reality, and what things can be described as real? What is the nature of those things? Do some things exist independently of our perception? What is the nature of space and time? What is the nature of thought and thinking? What is it to be a person?
• What is it to be beautiful? How do beautiful things differ from the everyday? What is Art? Does true beauty exist?

These five broad types of question are called analytical or logical, epistemological, ethical, metaphysical, and aesthetic respectively. They are not the only subjects of philosophical inquiry, and there are many overlaps between the categories which are subsumed within the discipline under the four major headings of Logic, Ontology, Epistemology, and Axiology. Aristotle, who was the first to use this classification (as he believed that to call himself "sophos" or wise was immodest), also considered politics (which he saw as part of ethics), modern-day physics, geology, biology, meteorology, and astronomy as branches of philosophical investigation. The Greeks, through the influence of Socrates and his method, developed a tradition of analysis that divided a subject into its components to understand it better.

Other traditions did not always use such labels, or emphasize the same themes. While Hindu philosophy has similarities with Western philosophy, there was no word for "philosophy" in Japanese, Korean, or Chinese until the 19th century, despite long-established philosophical traditions. Chinese philosophers, in particular, used different categories than the Greeks. Definitions were not based on common features, but were usually metaphorical and referred to several subjects at once . Boundaries between categories are not distinct in western philosophy, however, and since at least the 19th century, western philosophical works have usually addressed a nexus of questions rather than distinct topics.

Applied philosophy

Though often seen as a wholly abstract field, philosophy is not without practical applications. The most obvious applications are those in ethics – applied ethics in particular – and in political philosophy. The political philosophies of Confucius, Kautilya, Sun Tzu, John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Niccolo Machiavelli, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Karl Marx, John Stuart Mill, Mahatma Gandhi, Robert Nozick, and John Rawls have shaped and been used to justify governments and their actions.

In the field of the philosophy of education, progressive education as championed by John Dewey has had a profound impact on educational practices in the United States in the twentieth century.

Other important applications can be found in epistemology, which might help one to regulate one's notions of what knowledge, evidence, and justified belief are. Philosophy of science discusses the underpinnings of the scientific method. Aesthetics can help to interpret discussions of art. Even ontology, surely the most abstract and least practical-seeming branch of philosophy, has had important consequences for logic and computer science.

In general, the various "philosophies of," such as philosophy of law, can provide workers in their respective fields with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields.

Often, philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not understood well enough to be its own branch of knowledge. What were once merely philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields of psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics (among others). Computer science, cognitive science and artificial intelligence are modern areas of research that philosophy has played a role in developing.

Fields of applied philosophy

• Philosophy of education
• Philosophy of history
• Philosophy of language
• Philosophy of law
• Philosophy of mathematics
• Philosophy of mind
• Philosophy of perception
• Philosophy of philosophy (Metaphilosophy)
• Philosophy of physics
• Philosophy of politics
• Philosophy of psychology
• Philosophy of religion
• Philosophy of science
• Philosophy of social sciences

Philosophical traditions

Members of many societies have considered philosophical questions and built philosophic traditions based upon each other's works. Eastern and Middle Eastern philosophical traditions have influenced western philosophers. Russian, Jewish, Islamic and recently Latin American philosophical traditions have contributed to, or been derivative of western philosophy, yet retain a unique identity.

It is convenient to divide contemporary western academic philosophy into two traditions, since use of the term "Western philosophy" over the past century has often revealed a bias towards one or the other.

Analytic philosophy is characterized by a precise approach to analysing the language of philosophical questions. The purpose is to lay bare any underlying conceptual confusion. This approach dominates Anglo-American philosophy, but has roots in continental Europe, where it is also practiced. The tradition of analytic philosophy began with Gottlob Frege at the turn of the twentieth-century, and was carried on by Bertrand Russell, G. E. Moore and Ludwig Wittgenstein.

Continental philosophy is a label for various schools predominant in continental Europe, but also at home in many English-speaking Humanities departments, that may examine language, metaphysical approaches, political theory, perspectivalism, or various aspects of the arts and culture. One of the focuses of recent continental philosophical schools is the attempt to reconcile academic philosophy with issues that appear non-philosophical, subverting common expectations of what philosophy is meant to be.

The differences between traditions are often based on their favored historical philosophers, or emphases on ideas, styles or language of writing. The subject matter and dialogues of each can be studied using methods derived from the others, and there have been significant commonalities and exchanges between them.

Other philosophical traditions, such as African, are rarely considered by foreign academia. On account of the widespread emphasis on western philosophy as a reference point, the study, preservation and dissemination of valuable but not widely known non-western philosophical works faces many obstacles.

Languages can either be a barrier or a vehicle for ideas. The question of which specific languages can be considered essential to philosophizing is a theme in the works of many recent philosophers.

Western and Eastern philosophy

There is a tendency to divide philosophical traditions on geographic rather than logical grounds. At least since the publication of Bertrand Russel's History of Western Philosophy the most prominent of these divisions has been between the philosophies of Europe and its colonies, and those of Asia.

The western philosophic tradition began with the Greeks, while that of Asia originated in India and China.

Eastern philosophy follows the broad traditions that originated from, or were popular within, India, Persia, Mid East and China.

History of Philosophy

The bifurcation into Eastern philosophy and Western philosophy is most apparent in the discussion of the history of philosophical discourse. It would be improper to think of this division as branches of a philosophical tree, since they share no common root. Rather, the diverse roots find themselves joining at the branches, as the discourse between modern philosophers from diverse cultural backgrounds leads to the evolution of new areas of enquiry.

The keynote speech of all western philosophy is attributed to Pythagoras by Sosicrates (relying on Heraclides of Pontus), according to Diogenes Laertius in Lives of Eminent Philosophers, life of Pythagoras (8.8):

"Sosicrates in his Successions of Philosophers says that, when Leon the tyrant of Phlius asked him who he was, he said "A philosopher", and that he compared life to the Great Games, where some went to compete for the prize and others went with wares to sell, but the best (beltistoi) as spectators (theatai); for similarly, in life, some grow up with servile natures, greedy for fame and gain, but the philosopher (philosophos) seeks for truth (aletheia)."

From the verb theorein, "to see". comes theoria, "insight". The word for "seek" there is actually the word for "hunt". The man who loves wisdom hunts for insight. The sceptics subsequently quipped that they were always looking, never finding, and labelled themselves "doubters". But even those who deny insight are claiming the insight of doubt, and the traditions and language of the Greek philosophers survives.

Philosophical thinking also developed elsewhere, and can be seen in many ancient texts. In China, the Tao Te Ching of Lao Tze and the Analects of Kung fu tze (Confucius) both appeared around 600 BC, about the same time as the Greek pre-Socratics were writing. In India, the major philosophical texts are the Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita, from circa 500 BC. Islamic civilization also produced many philosophical geniuses (see Islamic philosophy).

Traditionally, the history of western philosophy is divided into three areas: Ancient Greek, Medieval, and Modern. There is also now focus being put on the post-modern period, especially existentialism. Étienne Gilson, in his book The Unity of Philosophic Experience, attempts to show important connections between the ideas of the medieval period and their development in the modern period; this is contrary to traditional interpretations of modern philosophy as a new era unconcerned with the past.

Ancient Greek Philosophy is typically divided into the pre-Socratic Period, the philosophy of Plato, and the philosophy of Aristotle. Important pre-Socratic philosophers include Thales, Anaximander, Anaximenes, Parmenides, and Heraclitus. Socrates and his pupil Plato revolutionized philosophy. While Socrates wrote nothing, his influence survives through that of his pupil. Plato defined the issues with which philosophy still wrestles.

One of the greatest synthesizers of Christian and Aristotelian thought was Thomas Aquinas. His synthesis of Aristotelian metaphysics and practical reasoning with Christian teaching became characteristic of medieval philosophy.

Descartes, who is often called the father of modern philosophy, proposed that philosophy should begin with a radical skepticism about the possibility of obtaining reliable knowledge. In his Meditations, he systematically destroys all the foundations of knowledge except one (I am thinking, therefore I am), and then uses this single indubitable fact to rebuild a system of knowledge.

The British Empiricists, John Locke and the Anglo-Irish George Berkeley and David Hume, developed a form of Scepticism and naturalism on roughly scientific principles. Hume was heavily influenced by empiricists John Locke, George Berkeley, Isaac Newton, and Samuel Clarke.

Immanuel Kant wrote his Critique of Pure Reason in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting views and establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics rooted in the analysis of the conditions for the possibility of knowledge.

By the late 19th Century, however, several important philosophers argued against the Kantians' skeptical attitude. One of the most influential was Edmund Husserl, who founded the philosophical mode known as phenomenology.

Contemporary philosophy has focused on Language as the philosopher's primary tool. In the analytic tradition, debates about philosophical method have been closely connected to debates about the relationship between philosophy and language, famously treating meaning as use in the case of Ludwig Wittgenstein. There is a similar concern in the postmodernism of Jacques Derrida, although with a greater emphasis on power relations and politics.

Many recent discussions seek to bring together the various and diverse traditions of philosophy.

See also

History of philosophy

Bibliography

Introductions

For beginners

• Blumenau, Ralph. Philosophy and Living ISBN 0907845339
• Craig, Edward. Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 0192854216
• Gaarder, Jostein. Sophie's World. ISBN 0425152251
• Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. A Short History of Philosophy. ISBN 0195101960
• Russell, Bertrand. The Problems of Philosophy. ISBN 019511552X
• Sober, E. (2001). Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. ISBN 0131898698
• Solomon, Robert C. Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 053416708X
• Stevenson, Jay. The Complete Idiot's Guide to Philosophy (2nd Edition). ISBN 0028643380
• Warburton, Nigel. Philosophy: The Basics. ISBN 0415146941
• What Philosophy Is.
• Philosophy Now.
• The Philosophy Manuscripts.

Topical introductions

• Copleston, Frederick. Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev. ISBN 0268015694
• Critchley, Simon. Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction. ISBN 0192853597
• Hamilton, Sue. Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction. ISBN 0192853740
• Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. An Introduction to African Philosophy. ISBN 0847688410
• Kupperman, Joel J. Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts. ISBN 0195133358
• Leaman, Oliver. A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy. ISBN 0745619606
• Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. Eastern Philosophy For Beginners. ISBN 0863162827
• Nagel, Thomas. What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy. ISBN 0195052927
• Scruton, Roger. A Short History of Modern Philosophy. ISBN 0415267633
• Smart, Ninian. World Philosophies. ISBN 0415228522
• Stevenson, Jay. Complete Idiot's Guide to Eastern Philosophy. ISBN 0028638204
• Tarnas, Richard. The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View. ISBN 0345368096
• The Branches of Philosophy
• A Glossary of Terms

Anthologies

• Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida (4th Edition) by Forrest E. Baird
• The Story of Philosophy by Will Durant
• Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1 & 2, 2nd edition) by Louis P. Pojman
• Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century (Vol. 3) by Louis P. Pojman
• The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill by Edwin Arthur Burtt
• European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche by Monroe Beardsley
• Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings by James Baillie
• Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition) by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom
• The Phenomenology Reader by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney
• Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi
• A Source Book in Indian Philosophy by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore
• A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy by Wing-Tsit Chan
• Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). Metaphysics: An Anthology. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
• The Oxford Handbook of Free Will (2004) edited by Robert Kane

Reference works

• The Oxford Companion to Philosophy edited by Ted Honderich
• The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy by Robert Audi
• The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, Luciano Floridi (also available online by subscription); or
• The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)
• Routledge History of Philosophy (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon
• History of Philosophy (9 vols.) by Frederick Copleston
• A History of Western Philosophy (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones
• Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al (first 6 volumes out of print)
• Indian Philosophy (2 vols.) by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan
• A History of Indian Philosophy (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta
• History of Chinese Philosophy (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde
• Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy edited by Antonio S. Cua
• Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs
• Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam
• A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English by John A. Grimes
• History of Islamic Philosophy edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman
• History of Jewish Philosophy edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman
• A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin
• Ayer, A. J. et al. Ed. (1994) A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.
• Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
• Mauter, T., Ed. The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy. London, Penguin Books.
• Runes, D., ED. (1942). The Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.
• Angeles, P. A., Ed. (1992). The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy. New York, Harper Perennial.
• Bunnin, N. et. al.,Ed.(1996) The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.
• Popkin, R. H. (1999). The Columbia History of Western Philosophy. New York, Columbia University Press.
• An historical time line.

External links

Some of these websites contain links to online texts of philosophy, as do many related articles on Misplaced Pages.

Resources

• Cultural And Ethinicity In Philosophy A sampling of philosophies in certain geographical areas. Warning: some links are not updated.
• Philosophical Society.com Offers an exhaustive reference library and passages from philosophical works.
• Dictionary of Philosophical Terms and Names
• EpistemeLinks.com : philosophy resources on the internet
• Erratic Impact: The Philosophy Research Base
• Guide to Philosophy on the Internet
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Introducing Philosophy Series by Paul Newall, aimed at beginners.
• Introduction to Philosophy (abridgement of other sources) (currently unavailable)
• Melbourne Philosophy: Philosophy in Melbourne, Australia (noncommercial, variety of resources, wiki)
• Philosophy around the Web
• Philosophy @ large, A webguide for the philosophy community provided by Liverpool University
• Philosophy in Cyberspace
• Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Signpost articles free, others require subscription
• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Philosophy Talk A radio program that questions everything except your intelligence

Forums

• The Academy A place to discuss philosophy from basic to advanced levels, with a library of introductory essays for beginners
• Blueskyboris' Love Of Wisdom Debates Ongoing debate on the veracity of the words of the greats
• BUPS-DIS Discussion list of the British Undergraduate Philosophy Society
• Ephilosopher Online philosophy forum for philosophers, philosophy students, and anyone interested in philosophy.
• Groves of Academe A discussion board covering philosophy, logic/mathematics, culture, literature, the arts, and technology.
• I Love Philosophy Large philosophy forum with areas for experts and novices.
• Internet Infidels Philosophical Forums Debate about atheist/theist issues, philosophy of science, ethics and morals, and general philosophy.
• LifeTheory.com Online community for philosophers, spiritual gurus, and big intellects.
• The Philosophy Forum maintained by David Thunder from the University of Notre Dame
• Philosophy Forums A place to discuss Philosophy, with a discursive library on Philosophical topics.
• PhiloWiki The complete Wiki-site for the development of multiple points of view on a range of philosophical topics
• Philter Philosophy's Forum Page A resource for learning and discussing philosophy
• Seekers of Truth Forums A place to discuss philosophies of religion, and other such topics
• Sicetnon.org eJournal for philosophy and culture. Discussion-board and journal.
• Talk Philosophy Place to discuss topics in all areas of philosophy from ethics to aesthetics
• WikiCity of Philosophy A WikiCity dedicated to philosophy, set up to collect and discuss any & everything about philosophy

Organizations, websites, and associations

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