State continuity of the Baltic states

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Occupation of the Baltic states
Part of a series on the

Baltic states Nazi Germany Soviet Union
Background Baltic–Soviet relations Non-aggression pacts Soviet–Estonian Soviet–Latvian Soviet–Lithuanian German–Estonian German–Latvian German–Lithuanian Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact
Soviet occupation in 1940 Mutual Assistance Treaties Soviet–Estonian Soviet-Latvian Soviet-Lithuanian Orzeł incident Ultimata to Estonia to Latvia to Lithuania People's Parliament Sovietization Deportations from Estonia from Latvia from Lithuania June deportation Welles Declaration
German occupationEstonia Occupation Resistance Holocaust Latvia Occupation Resistance Holocaust Lithuania Occupation Resistance Holocaust
Soviet re-occupation in 1944 Battle of Narva Baltic offensive Courland Pocket Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Latvian partisans Lithuanian partisans
Under Soviet rule Guerrilla war in the Baltic states Operation Priboi Operation Jungle Estonian SSR Latvian SSR Lithuanian SSR Territorial changes Baltic Way Singing Revolution Sąjūdis Tautas fronte Rahvarinne Congress of Estonia
State continuity Baltic diplomatic services (1940–91) Estonian Latvian Lithuanian Kersten Committee Helsinki Accords
Aftermath Estonia–Russia relations Latvia–Russia relations Lithuania–Russia relations Russians in Estonia Russians in Latvia Russians in Lithuania
v t e

The legal continuity of the Baltic states has been recognised by most Western powers and is a consequence of the policy of non-recognition of the Soviet seizure of these countries which held that de jure, the Baltic states remained independent states under illegal occupation throughout the period 1940–91. Derived from the fundamental legal principle of ex injuria jus non oritur, that no legal benefit can be derived from an illegal act, the annexation of the Baltic states was judged to be illegal and thus the Baltic states continued to exist as subjects of international law.

The official position of Russia (legal successor of the USSR) is that Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania were legally annexed by Soviet Union in 1940, and, with its dissolution, these countries became newly created entities in 1991. {{citation}}: Empty citation (help) Russia's stance is based upon the desire to avoid financial liability, the view being that acknowledging the Soviet occupation would set the stage for future compensation claims from the Baltic states.

Background

The four countries on the Baltic Sea that were formerly parts of the Russian Empire – Finland, Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania – consolidated their borders and independence after the Estonian, Latvian and Lithuanian independence wars following the end of World War I by 1920 (see Treaty of Tartu, Latvian-Soviet Riga Peace Treaty and Soviet-Lithuanian Treaty of 1920).

In 1924 Lithuania, Latvia and Estonia sealed a pact of mutual defense against eventual aggressors. Ten years later, the Stalinist USSR pledged to not attack these three Baltic States until 1944.

Estonia

Estonia adopted the Estonian Declaration of Independence on 24 February 1918. The document states number of principles such freedom of expression, religion, assembly and association. These principles were further elaborated in the Provisional Constitution of 1919. Popular sovereignty was to the basis of the Estonia. However, in 1934 the authoritarian regime of Konstantin Päts introduced a new Constitution. Later the Constitution of 1938 was an attempt to return to democratic rule, but it still accorded powers to the president. Overall, in spite of internal political changes, Estonia was an legal, internationally recognized state in the years prior to 1940.

The independent was interrupted in June 1940, aftermath of the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact between the Nazi Germany and the Soviet Union of August 1939. The Soviet Union used almost similar pattern with all three Baltic states, beginning with ultimatums on the basis of alleged failures to fulfill mutual assistance pacts signed previous year. The ultimatums had to be obeyed with hours, and soon after the Soviet troops marched into the capitals. The Soviets proposed and approved their new governments. Now, the new local governments seemingly made decisions which led to the annexation. In order to create an image of legitimacy, new elections were imposed under the presence of Soviet troops. The United States, along with number of other states, did never recognise the occupation and annexation of the Baltic states.

Latvia

Latvia adopted the Declaration Establishing a Provisional Government of Latvia on 18 November 1918. In 1920, the free elected Constituent assembly adopted two basic laws. The first Constitution was adopted in 1922. Latvia was the only of the three Baltic states in which the Constitution remained in force until Soviet occupation. However, Prime Minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power by a coup d'état and the parliament was dissolved in 1934.

Lithuania

After centuries of foreign domination the Council of Lithuania adopted the Act of Independence of Lithuania on 16 February 1918. During the first decades of the Republic of Lithuania, three Constitutions were adopted in 1922, in 1928 and in 1938. The legislative institution of Lithuania was the freely elected parliament. However, Antanas Smetona took power by a coup d'état in 1926. He adopted the Constitution of 1928 which increased president power and reduced parliament members from 85 to 49. In the Constitution of 1938, the president received broader powers, but the parliament was entrusted with legislation instead of the previous system of presidential decrees. Furthermore, the president was elected by the people for seven years.

Soviet incorporation

The forcible annexation of the Baltic states was an illegal act under both customary and conventional international law. Under customary law the annexation violated all the basic principles, such as state sovereignty and independence, the prohibition against violent seizure of territory and the prohibition against intervention. In conventional law the actions of the Soviet Union violated practically every provision of every major convention between the Soviet Union and the respective Baltic states. The Secret Protocols with Germany was a violation of Article 2 of the Estonian and Latvian Non-Aggression treaties. The threat to use force and the ultimatum to conclude the Treaties of Mutual Assistance violated the spirit and letter of the respective Peace Treaties, the Non-Aggression Treaties, the Conciliation Conventions, the Kellogg Pact and the Protocol for the Renunciation of War. The Soviet action in the military occupation, forcible intervention and annexation constituted an act of aggression within the meaning of Article 2 of the Conventions for the Definition of Aggression of 1933, nor was there any justification according to Article 3 and the Annex of that same convention.

Elections

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At that time Estonia had a bicameral parliament, consisting the Chamber of Deputies and the National Council. The Estonian constitution requires that all legislation be passed by both chambers before becoming law. The Soviet authorities had overlooked re-electing the national Council and it never convened to pass any legislation. According to Justice Atkinson: "But even apart from the illegality of the election of the Chambers of deputies, they had no legislative power without the second Chamber, which was not re-elected and never again convened"

Western non-recognition of annexation

Main articles: Stimson Doctrine and Welles declaration See also: Executive Order 8484

Baltic diplomatic sphere 1940–1991

Baltic assets 1940–1991

After the invasion of Denmark and Norway by Nazi Germany on April 9, 1940 during WWII the President of the US issued the Executive Order 8389 under which the Treasury Department froze in the US all financial assets of occupied European countries. After the Soviet Occupation of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania EO 8389 was extended to the assets and properties of the Baltic states.

The freezing of Baltic assets by the US was condemned by the Soviet Union and it was declared that there shouldn't be any legal basis for delaying the transfer of the Baltic gold from the US Federal Reserve to the State Bank of the Soviet Union.

In July 1940 the Bank of England sequestrated the Baltic gold reserves deposited in the UK. During the 1950s the USSR claimed the gold regularly but was rejected due to the de jure non recognition of the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states. On January 5, 1968 an agreement between the UK and USSR was achieved, Soviet Union renounced all claims to the Baltic gold hold in the Bank of England in return for the waiver of all claims by the UK resulted by the nationalization in the USSR. In 1992 the British Government returned the assets in the amount of £ 90 million to the Baltic states.

The Baltic assets deposited in Sweden were released to Soviet Union immediately after the Soviets demanded the Baltic gold reserves to be handed over in 1940, later the amount was compensated by Sweden to Baltic states in 1992.

The 3 tons of gold deposited in the Bank of France by Latvia and Lithuania were refused to turn over to the USSR by governments of France.

The gold reserves deposited by Baltic states prior 1940 into the Bank for International Settlements in Switzerland remained intact. After Baltic countries regained independence in 1991, the Baltic gold was released to the central banks of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania.

Helsinki Accords

The Baltic question was raised during the negotiations of the Final Act of the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe. During the negotiations the Soviet Union supported the description that declared any attempt of territorial claims to be an act of aggression. The suggestion was opposed by West Germany, by Spain, Ireland and Canada. The Canadian representatives claimed that accepting the Soviet proposal would mean de jure recognition of the Soviet incorporation of the Baltic states. Supported by other NATO members, the final act stated that by peaceful means the borders could be changed. The president of the US and leaders of other NATO member states confirmed in statements that the provision didn't entail recognition of the Baltic states incorporation into the Soviet Union.

Recognition and non-recognition of annexation

De jure non-recognition, or no final decision on non-recognition policy

In 1960, the following states did not recognise the Soviet annexation of the Baltic states de jure. The list also includes the states that had no diplomatic relations with the USSR.

Australia – semi official relations maintained with Baltic representatives, de jure recognised for 17 months between July 1974-December 1975 by the Whitlam government.
Canada – semi official relations maintained with Baltic representatives. De facto recognition accorded, de jure denied
Belgium – no final decision on non-recognition policy, no official relations with Baltic representatives, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded.
Brazil – official relations with Baltic representatives, save for the Política Externa Independente era.
China – ()
Denmark – Some relations with Baltic representatives maintained, no final decision on non-recognition policy
West Germany – Recognition of Baltic passports, no final decision on non-recognition policy, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
Germany – Recognition of Baltic passports, no final decision on non-recognition policy, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
France – maintained semi official relations with Baltic representatives, no recognition (de facto or de jure) per policy statement
Iceland – no official diplomatic relations
Greece – no official relations, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Italy – de facto recognition accorded
Netherlands – Visa de courtoisie granted to Baltic representatives in London, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Nicaragua – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Norway – no official relations, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Switzerland – some relations maintained, fiduciary of Baltic assets, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Turkey – no official relations, no final decision on non-recognition policy
United Kingdom – maintained semi official diplomatic relations, de facto recognition accorded
United States – maintained official diplomatic relations, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
Union of South Africa – no official relations
Uruguay – maintained official diplomatic relations
Vatican City – maintained official diplomatic relations, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded

No final decision on non-recognition policy

Afghanistan – no official relations with Baltic representatives, no final decision on non-recognition policy.
Colombia – Some relations maintained with Baltic representatives, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Cuba – Some relations maintained, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Ethiopia – no official relations, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Finland – no official relations, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Mexico – some relations with Baltic representatives, no final decision on non-recognition policy
Switzerland – some relations maintained, fiduciary of Baltic assets, no final decision on non-recognition policy

No official relations with Baltic states

Ireland – no official relations, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
Iran – no official relations with Baltic representatives
Luxembourg – no official relations
Union of South Africa – no official relations

States that had no diplomatic relations with the USSR by 1960

Chile – no diplomatic relations with USSR.
Costa Rica – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Dominica – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Ecuador – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Liberia – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Spain – maintained semi official diplomatic relations, had no diplomatic relations with USSR until 1977. no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
Portugal – no diplomatic relations with USSR, no de jure nor de facto recognition accorded
Peru – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Paraguay – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Taiwan – no diplomatic relations with USSR
Venezuela – no diplomatic relations with USSR

De jure recognition

The following Western governments granted de jure recognition of incorporation in the Soviet Union and governance of the Baltic states according to the August 8, 1960 survey:

Austria – Implicit de jure recognition granted, Baltic passports not recognized {{citation}}: Empty citation (help)
Argentina – Implicit de jure recognition granted, Baltic passports not recognized {{citation}}: Empty citation (help)
Bolivia {{citation}}: Empty citation (help)
Japan {{citation}}: Empty citation (help)
New Zealand
Australia – Australia de jure recognized the Baltic republics as part of the USSR for a time (1974–1975).

Baltic states assert state continuity

Estonia

On 30 March 1990, the Estonian Supreme Council adopted the resolution on the state status of Estonia. The resolution announced that the independence of Estonia de jure had never been suspended, because of the illegal occupation since 1940. A further resolution of the restoration of the Republic of Estonia was adopted on 20 August 1991. The new Constitution was introduced on 29 July 1992. It was partly linked to the Constitution of 1938, serving further the claims to constitutional continuity.

Latvia

Following the Soviet period, On the Restoration of Independence of the Republic of Latvia was adopted on 4 May 1990. It restored the authority of the Constitution of 1922, except for a few provisions. However, it never took place. The new Constitutional Law was adopted on 21 August 1991 and it provided the restoration of independence through negotiations with the Soviet Union. The fifth parliament was elected in 1993, the nationalists took majority. The parliament restored the Constitution of 1922, and upheld the legal continuity of the Republic of Latvia.

Lithuania

Unlike Estonia and Latvia, Lithuania proclaimed the Re-Establishment of the State of Lithuania in 1990 without a period of transition. The act emphasised the 1918 act and the 1920 resolution for the purposes of constitutional continuity. The Congress of Soviets adopted a resolution on 15 March 1990 in which Lithuania's decision violated the Constitution of the Soviet Union. Lithuania adopted a Resolution on the Liquidation of the 1939 Germany–USSR Agreements and their Consequences on 7 February 1990. The Constitutional Court of Lithuania decided the Constitution of 1938 had been suspended in 1940 and resumed with the reintroduction. At the same time the Court recognised that it is impossible to reconstruct system as in 1940. The new Constitution was adapted on 25 October 1992.

International reactions to the restoration of Baltic independence

International organisations

The admission of the Baltic states to the United Nations took place in accordance with article four of the United Nations Charter. Initially, the membership contributions were derived from the fees previously paid by the Soviet Union. However after objections, the United Nations accepted the statesments of the Baltic states they were not successor states of the Soviet Union. The Baltic states were accepted as new members, due to the fact the League of Nations was not predecessor of the United Nations.

The Baltic states were members of the International Labour Organization since 1921. Therefore, its recognition was important towards the Baltic states to their claim to state continuity. The organisation accepted the Baltic claim to continue their previous membership. However, the International Labour Organization considered the Baltic states had been readmitted, even though no formal decision determined it.

The Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe noted the Soviet Union violated the right of the Baltic people to self-determination. The acts of 1940 had resulted in occupation and illegal annexation. The Council also noted several member states reconfirmed the Baltic states recognition dating back to the 1920s, while other recognised them anew. The European Communities welcomed the restoration of the sovereignty and independence on 27 August 1991. The Soviet Union recognised the Baltic independence on 6 September 1991. The Conference for Security and Co-operation in Europe admitted the Baltic states as new members on 10 September 1991.

Additionally the European Parliament, the European Court of Human Rights and the United Nations Human Rights Council, have declared the Baltic states were invaded, occupied and illegally incorporated into the Soviet Union under provisions of the 1939 Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact.

European Court of Human Rights

The European Court of Human Rights made a number of rulings with regard to activities of the USSR including military and security services in the occupied Baltic states between 1940 and 1991.

Admission ex-Soviet Union's members into the Council of Europe in the second part of the 1990s along with other issues brought into the European Court of Human Rights arguments relating to the question of the legality of Baltic states' membership in the Soviet Union.

On 16 March 2006 the Grand Chamber of the Court made the following statement in the case of Tatjana Ždanoka vs Latvia (paragraph 119 of its judgment):

Latvia, together with the other Baltic States, lost its independence in 1940 in the aftermath of the partition of central and eastern Europe agreed by Hitler's Germany and Stalin's Soviet Union by way of the secret protocol to the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact, an agreement contrary to the generally recognised principles of international law. The ensuing annexation of Latvia by the Soviet Union was orchestrated and conducted under the authority of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), the Communist Party of Latvia (CPL) being a satellite branch of the CPSU.

Subsequently to Ždanoka, a number of other judgments and decisions were adopted by Chambers (smaller formations) of the Court in cases regarding issues ranging from the restriction of political rights of active Soviet collaborators to criminal conviction for genocide, whereby the Court reiterated the conclusion that illegal occupation of Baltic States by the USSR had taken place in 1940 (see Kolk vs Estonia, Penart vs Estonia). In Penart, the Court declared inadmissible an application by a former USSR internal security service operative Vladimir Penart, convicted on charges of crimes against humanity by Estonian court for killing "a person hiding in the woods" most probably a member of Forest Brothers militant anti-Soviet movement in 1953. The court stated following:

The Court notes, first, that Estonia lost its independence as a result of the Treaty of Non-Aggression between Germany and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also known as “Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact”), concluded on 23 August 1939, and the secret additional protocols to it. Following an ultimatum to set up Soviet military bases in Estonia in 1939, a large-scale entry of the Soviet army into Estonia took place in June 1940. The lawful government of the country was overthrown and Soviet rule was imposed by force. The totalitarian communist regime of the Soviet Union conducted large-scale and systematic actions against the Estonian population, including, for example, the deportation of about 10,000 persons on 14 June 1941 and of more than 20,000 on 25 March 1949. After the Second World War, tens of thousands of persons went into hiding in the forests to avoid repression by the Soviet authorities; part of those in hiding actively resisted the occupation regime. According to the data of the security organs, about 1,500 persons were killed and almost 10,000 arrested in the course of the resistance movement of 1944-1953. Interrupted by the German occupation in 1941-1944, Estonia remained occupied by the Soviet Union until its restoration of independence in 1991. Accordingly, Estonia as a state was temporarily prevented from fulfilling its international commitments.

The court's rulings appear favorable to several aspects, which are important with regard to restoration of the Baltic states including the legal continuity doctrine. The rulings confirmed that the USSR committed crimes in the illegally occupied Baltic states such as Soviet deportations from Estonia and in case Tatjana Ždanoka vs Latvia drew parallels between legal treatment of the German Waffen SS and hardline elements of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union.

In Russian Federation rulings of the court caused negative reaction among politicians and were characterized as "politicized."

In the Baltic states the court rulings were accepted within the general lines of the Western non-recognition policy (see Stimson Doctrine). Notably Estonian security police Kaitsepolitseiamet emphasized the importance of the decisions in its 2006 yearbook.

Soviet Union and Russian Federation

The last General Secretary of the Soviet Union Mikhail Gorbachev established a 26-member Commission to evaluate the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and its Secret Protocols. The Commission agreed that the Pact existed and its content was contrary to Baltic–Soviet treaties. The Commission was not able to reach consensus on the effects of the pact, since it would open the possibility to Baltic exit from the Soviet Union. The issue has not been discussed in the Russian Federation since the report of the Commission in 1989. Contemporary Russian Federation has refused to be bound pre-1940 agreements which the Soviet Union had entered with the Baltic states. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Russia has announced that the distortion of history and allegations of unlawful occupations are the main reasons for the problems in the Baltic–Russia relations.

At the same time, the Russian Federation claims that it continues as the legal personality of the former Soviet Union is jeopardised by its own indecisiveness of the relationship between the Russian Federation and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union obligations did not continue automatically with the Russian Federation. Decisions were made on a case by case basis. The Russian Federation weighted carefully the degree to which the continuity was its interest, especially in the field of bilateral relations and debts.

References

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