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Ayn Rand
Half-length monochrome portrait photo of Ayn Rand, seated, holding a cigaretteAyn Rand in 1957
OccupationPhilosopher, writer
Alma materUniversity of Petrograd
Notable worksThe Fountainhead
Atlas Shrugged
SpouseFrank O'Connor (m. 1929)
Signature

Ayn Rand (pronounced /ˈaɪn ˈrænd/; born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum, February 2 [O.S. January 20] 1905 – March 6, 1982), was a Russian-American novelist, philosopher, playwright, and screenwriter. She is known for her two best-selling novels and for developing a philosophical system she called Objectivism. Born and educated in Russia, Rand migrated to the United States in 1926. She worked as a screenwriter in Hollywood and had a play produced on Broadway in 1935–1936. She first achieved fame with her 1943 novel The Fountainhead. Over a decade later, she published her magnum opus, the philosophical novel Atlas Shrugged, in 1957.

Rand's political views, reflected in both her fiction and her theoretical work, emphasize individual rights (including property rights) and laissez-faire capitalism, enforced by a constitutionally limited government. She was a fierce opponent of all forms of collectivism and statism, including fascism, communism, socialism, and the welfare state, and promoted ethical egoism while rejecting the ethic of altruism. She considered reason to be the only means of acquiring knowledge and its advocacy the most important aspect of her philosophy, stating, "I am not primarily an advocate of capitalism, but of egoism; and I am not primarily an advocate of egoism, but of reason. If one recognizes the supremacy of reason and applies it consistently, all the rest follows."

Life and work

Early life

Rand was born Alisa Zinov'yevna Rosenbaum (Template:Lang-ru) on February 2, 1905, to a bourgeois family living in Saint Petersburg. She was the eldest of the three daughters of Zinovy Zakharovich Rosenbaum and Anna Borisovna Rosenbaum, largely non-observant Jews. Her younger sisters were Natasha and Nora. Rand's father was educated at Warsaw University as a chemist and became a successful pharmacist, eventually owning his own pharmacy and the building in which it was located. His success allowed the family to employ a cook, maid, nurse, and governess. Growing up, she was praised by adults for her intelligence, but her intensity and social awkwardness meant she rarely had friends her own age. On one occasion, when a school assignment called for her to write about the joys of childhood, she instead wrote what she later recalled as "a scathing denunciation" of childhood as inferior to the intellectual condition of adults.

Rand was twelve at the time of the Russian Revolution of 1917, during which Rand's sympathies were with Alexander Kerensky. Rand's family life was disrupted by the rise of the Bolshevik party under Vladimir Lenin. Her father's pharmacy was confiscated by the Bolsheviks, and the family fled to the Crimea, which was initially under the control of the White Army during the Russian Civil War. She later recalled that while in high school she determined that she was an atheist and that she valued reason above any other human attribute. After graduating from high school in the Crimea, at sixteen Rand returned with her family to Saint Petersburg, where they faced desperate conditions, on occasion, nearly starving.

A black-and-white engraving shows a large building along the bank of a river, with numerous people and carriages nearby
Rand completed a three-year program at Petrograd State University.

Following the Russian Revolution, universities were opened to women, including Jews, allowing Rand to be in the first group of women to enroll at Petrograd State University, where she studied in the department of social pedagogy, majoring in history. At the university she was introduced to the writings of Aristotle and Plato, who would form two of the greatest influences and counter-influences respectively on her thought. A third figure whose philosophical works she studied heavily was Friedrich Nietzsche. Able to read French, German and Russian, at this time she also discovered the fiction writers Fyodor Dostoevsky, Victor Hugo, Edmond Rostand, and Friedrich Schiller, who became her perennial favorites. Along with many other "bourgeois" students, Rand was purged from the university shortly before graduating. However, after complaints from a group of visiting foreign scientists, many of the purged students were allowed to complete their work and graduate, which Rand did in October 1924. She subsequently studied for a year at the State Technicum for Screen Arts in Leningrad. For one of her assignments, she wrote an essay about the actress Pola Negri, which became her first published work.

In the fall of 1925, she was granted a visa to visit American relatives. As her train pulled away she called out to her family, "By the time I return, I'll be famous!" Leaving Russia on January 17, 1926, Rand arrived in the United States on February 19, entering by ship through New York City. She was so impressed with the skyline of Manhattan upon her arrival that she cried what she later called "tears of splendor". Intent on staying in the United States to become a screenwriter, she lived for a few months with relatives in Chicago, one of whom owned a movie theater and allowed her to watch dozens of films for free. She then set out for Hollywood, California.

While still in Russia she had decided her professional surname for writing would be Rand, possibly as a Cyrillic contraction of her birth surname, and she adopted the first name Ayn, either from a Finnish name or from the Hebrew word עין (ayin, meaning "eye"). Initially, she struggled in Hollywood and took odd jobs to pay her basic living expenses. A chance meeting with famed director Cecil B. DeMille led to a job as an extra in his film, The King of Kings, and to subsequent work as a junior screenwriter. While working on The King of Kings, she intentionally bumped into an aspiring young actor, Frank O'Connor, who caught her eye. The two were married on April 15, 1929. Rand became an American citizen in 1931. Taking various jobs during the 1930s to support her writing, Rand worked for a time as the head of the costume department at RKO Studios. She made several attempts to bring her parents and sisters to the United States, but they were unable to get permission to emigrate.

A brown book cover with black-and-white drawings and text in Russian. The drawing on the left is a portrait of a woman with dark hair; the drawing on the right is of skyscrapers.
Cover of Rand's first book, a 2,500-word monograph on the Polish femme fatale Pola Negri published in 1925.

Early fiction

See also: Night of January 16th, We the Living, and Anthem (novella)

In the late 1920s, Rand worked on a number of writing projects, including movie scenarios, short stories, and a novel called The Little Street. The hero of The Little Street named Danny Renahan, was described as having "the true, innate psychology of a Superman" and was to be based on an idealized portrait of the notorious child killer William Edward Hickman. Although Rand referred to Hickman as a "monster" in her notes, she sought to dramatize the underlying causes of Hickman's pathology, which she described as being that of "a man with no regard whatever for all that society holds sacred, and with a consciousness all his own ... A man who really stands alone, in action and in soul." One biographer, comparing Rand's use of a criminal to that of Truman Capote's In Cold Blood, writes: "to Rand a Superman was one who cared nothing for the thoughts, feelings, or opinions of others." Some Rand scholars have interpreted her notes for this book as evidence of her early admiration of the ideas of Friedrich Nietzsche. Rand later abandoned the novel, and most of these other early projects were never produced or published during Rand's lifetime.

Rand's first literary success came with the sale of her screenplay Red Pawn to Universal Studios in 1932. Josef Von Sternberg considered it for Marlene Dietrich, but anti-Communist themes were unpopular at the time, and the project came to nothing. This was followed by the courtroom drama Night of January 16th, first produced in Hollywood in 1934 and then successfully reopened on Broadway in 1935. Each night the "jury" was selected from members of the audience, and one of the two different endings, depending on the jury's "verdict", would then be performed. In 1941, Paramount Pictures produced a movie version of the play. Rand did not participate in the production and was highly critical of the result.

Her first novel, the semi-autobiographical We the Living, was published in 1936. Set in Soviet Russia, it focused on the struggle between the individual and the state. In the foreword to the novel, Rand stated that We the Living "is as near to an autobiography as I will ever write. It is not an autobiography in the literal, but only in the intellectual sense. The plot is invented, the background is not..." Without Rand's knowledge or permission, We the Living was made into a pair of Italian films, Noi vivi and Addio, Kira, in 1942. Rediscovered in the 1960s, these films were re-edited into a new version which was approved by Rand and re-released as We the Living in 1986.

Her novella Anthem was published in England in 1938 and in America seven years later. It presents a vision of a dystopian future world in which totalitarian collectivism has triumphed to such an extent that even the word 'I' has been forgotten and replaced with 'we'.

The Fountainhead and political activism

See also: The Fountainhead and The Fountainhead (film)

The great creators—the thinkers, the artists, the scientists, the inventors—stood alone against the men of their time. Every great new thought was opposed. Every great new invention was denounced. The first motor was considered foolish. The airplane was considered impossible. The power loom was considered vicious. Anesthesia was considered sinful. But the men of unborrowed vision went ahead. They fought, they suffered and they paid. But they won.

Howard Roark, in The Fountainhead

During the 1940s, Rand became involved in political activism. Both she and her husband worked full time in volunteer positions for the 1940 Presidential campaign of Republican Wendell Willkie. This work led to Rand's first public speaking experiences, including fielding the sometimes hostile questions from New York City audiences who had just viewed pro-Willkie newsreels, an experience she greatly enjoyed. This activity also brought her into contact with other intellectuals sympathetic to free-market capitalism. She became friends with journalist Henry Hazlitt and his wife, and Hazlitt introduced her to the Austrian School economist Ludwig von Mises. Despite her philosophical differences with them, Rand strongly endorsed the writings of both men throughout her career, and both of them expressed admiration for her. Once von Mises referred to Rand as "the most courageous man in America", a compliment that particularly pleased her because he said 'man' instead of 'woman'. Rand also developed a friendship with libertarian writer Isabel Paterson. Rand questioned the well-informed Paterson about American history and politics long into the night during their numerous meetings and gave Paterson ideas for her only nonfiction book, The God of the Machine.

Rand's first major success as a writer came with The Fountainhead in 1943, a romantic and philosophical novel that she wrote over a period of seven years. The novel centers on an uncompromising young architect named Howard Roark and his struggle against what Rand described as "second-handers"—those who attempt to live through others, placing others above self. It was rejected by twelve publishers before finally being accepted by the Bobbs-Merrill Company on the insistence of editor Archibald Ogden, who threatened to quit if his employer did not publish it. While completing the novel, Rand was prescribed the amphetamine Benzedrine to fight fatigue. The drug helped her to work long hours to meet her deadline for delivering the finished novel, but when the book was done, she was so exhausted that her doctor ordered two weeks' rest. Her continued use of the drug for a number of years may have contributed to what some of her later associates described as volatile mood swings.

The Fountainhead eventually became a worldwide success, bringing Rand fame and financial security. In 1943, Rand sold the rights for a film version to Warner Brothers, and she returned to Hollywood to write the screenplay. Finishing her work on that screenplay, she was hired by producer Hal Wallis as a screenwriter and script-doctor. Her work for Wallis included the screenplays for the Oscar-nominated Love Letters and You Came Along, along with research for a screenplay based on the development of the atomic bomb. This role gave Rand time to work on other projects, including the publication of her first work of nonfiction, an essay titled "The Only Path to Tomorrow", in the January 1944 edition of Reader's Digest magazine. Rand also outlined and took extensive notes for a nonfiction treatment of her philosophy, although the planned book was never completed.

While working in Hollywood, Rand extended her involvement with free-market and anti-Communist activism. She and her husband purchased a house designed by modernist Richard Neutra and an adjoining ranch. There, Rand entertained figures such as Hazlitt, Morrie Ryskind, Barbara Stanwyck, Janet Gaynor, Adrian, Albert Mannheimer and Leonard Read. A visit by Isabel Paterson to meet with Rand's California associates led to a final falling out between the two when Paterson made comments that Rand saw as rude to valued political allies. Despite their break, Rand continued to promote Paterson's The God of the Machine.

Rand became involved with the Motion Picture Alliance for the Preservation of American Ideals, a Hollywood anti-Communist group, and wrote articles on the group's behalf. She also joined the anti-Communist American Writers Association. In 1947, during the Second Red Scare, Rand testified as a "friendly witness" before the United States House Un-American Activities Committee. Her testimony described the disparity between her personal experiences in the Soviet Union and the portrayal of it in the 1944 film Song of Russia. Rand argued that the film grossly misrepresented conditions in the Soviet Union, portraying life there as being much better and happier than it actually was. When asked about her feelings on the effectiveness of the investigations after the hearings, Rand described the process as "futile".

After several delays, the movie version of The Fountainhead was released in 1949. Although it used Rand's screenplay with minimal alterations, she "disliked the movie from beginning to end," complaining about its editing, acting and other elements.

Atlas Shrugged and Objectivism

See also: Atlas Shrugged, Objectivism (Ayn Rand), and Objectivist movement

The man at the top of the intellectual pyramid contributes the most to all those below him, but gets nothing except his material payment, receiving no intellectual bonus from others to add to the value of his time. The man at the bottom who, left to himself, would starve in his hopeless ineptitude, contributes nothing to those above him, but receives the bonus of all their brains. Such is the nature of the competition between the strong and the weak of the intellect. Such is the pattern of 'exploitation' for which you have damned the strong.

John Galt, in Atlas Shrugged

After the publication of The Fountainhead, Rand received numerous letters from readers, some of whom it had profoundly influenced. In 1951 Rand moved from Los Angeles to New York City, where she gathered a group of these admirers around her. This group (jokingly designated "The Collective") included future Federal Reserve chairman Alan Greenspan, a young psychology student named Nathan Blumenthal (later Nathaniel Branden) and his wife Barbara, and Barbara's cousin Leonard Peikoff. At first the group was an informal gathering of friends who met with Rand on weekends at her apartment to discuss philosophy. Later she began allowing them to read the drafts of her new novel, Atlas Shrugged, as the manuscript pages were written. In 1954 Rand's close relationship with the much younger Nathaniel Branden turned into a romantic affair, with the consent of their spouses.

Atlas Shrugged, published in 1957, was Rand's magnum opus. Rand described the theme of the novel as "the role of the mind in man's existence—and, as a corollary, the demonstration of a new moral philosophy: the morality of rational self-interest." It advocates the core tenets of Rand's philosophy of Objectivism and expresses her concept of human achievement. The plot involves a dystopian United States in which the most creative industrialists, scientists and artists go on strike and retreat to a mountainous hideaway where they build an independent free economy. The novel's hero and leader of the strike, John Galt, describes the strike as "stopping the motor of the world" by withdrawing the minds of the individuals most contributing to the nation's wealth and achievement. With this fictional strike, Rand intended to illustrate that without the efforts of the rational and productive, the economy would collapse and society would fall apart. The novel includes elements of mystery and science fiction, and it contains Rand's most extensive statement of Objectivism in any of her works of fiction, a lengthy monologue delivered by Galt. Atlas Shrugged became an international bestseller, and in an interview with Mike Wallace Rand declared herself "the most creative thinker alive." Rand's last work of fiction, it marked a turning point in her life, ending her career as novelist and beginning her role as a popular philosopher. After completing the novel of more than one thousand pages, however, Rand fell into a severe depression that may have been aggravated by her use of prescription amphetamines.

In 1958 Nathaniel Branden established Nathaniel Branden Lectures, later incorporated as the Nathaniel Branden Institute (NBI), to promote Rand's philosophy. Collective members gave lectures for NBI and wrote articles for Objectivist periodicals that she edited. Rand later published some of these articles in book form. Critics, including some former NBI students and Branden himself, have described the culture of NBI as one of intellectual conformity and excessive reverence for Rand, with some describing NBI or the entire Objectivist movement as a cult or religion. Rand expressed opinions on a wide range of topics, including literature, music, sexuality, even facial hair, and some of her followers mimicked all her preferences, wearing clothes to match characters from her novels and buying furniture like hers. Rand was unimpressed with many of the NBI students and held them to strict standards, sometimes reacting coldly or angrily to those who disagreed with her. However, some former NBI students believe the extent of these behaviors has been exaggerated, with the problem being concentrated among Rand's closest followers in New York.

Later years

Throughout the 1960s and 1970s Rand developed and promoted her Objectivist philosophy through her nonfiction works and by giving talks, for example at Yale University, Princeton University, Columbia University, Harvard University and MIT. She received an honorary doctorate from Lewis & Clark College in 1963. She also began delivering annual lectures at the Ford Hall Forum, responding afterwards in her famously spirited form to questions from the audience. During these speeches and Q&A sessions, she often took controversial stances on political and social issues of the day. These included supporting abortion rights, opposing the Vietnam War and the military draft (but condemning draft dodgers as "bums"), supporting Israel in the Arab-Israeli War of 1973 as "civilized men fighting savages", saying European colonists had the right to take land from American Indians, and calling homosexuality "immoral" and "disgusting", while also advocating the repeal of all laws against homosexuality. She also endorsed several Republican candidates for President of the United States, most strongly Barry Goldwater in 1964, whose candidacy she promoted in several articles for The Objectivist Newsletter.

A twin gravestone bearing the name "Frank O'Connor" on the left, and "Ayn Rand O'Connor" on the right
Grave marker for Rand and her husband

In 1964 Nathaniel Branden began an affair with the young actress Patrecia Scott, whom he later married. Nathaniel and Barbara Branden kept the affair hidden from Rand. When she learned of it in 1968, though her romantic relationship with Branden had already ended, Rand terminated her relationship with both Brandens, which led to the closure of NBI. Rand published an article in The Objectivist repudiating Nathaniel Branden for dishonesty and other "irrational behavior in his private life." Branden later apologized in an interview to "every student of Objectivism" for "perpetuating the Ayn Rand mystique" and for "contributing to that dreadful atmosphere of intellectual repressiveness that pervades the Objectivist movement."

A heavy smoker, Rand underwent surgery for lung cancer in 1974. Although she had long opposed government assistance programs, she wrote that it is perfectly moral to accept Social Security and Medicare, given the coercion used to collect the resources for such programs and the widespread impoverishment that results. Consistently with the advise she gave others, Rand accepted such payments for herself and her husband. Several more of her closest associates parted company with her, and during the late 1970s her activities within the Objectivist movement declined, especially after the death of her husband on November 9, 1979. One of her final projects was work on a never-completed television adaptation of Atlas Shrugged. She had also planned to write another novel, but did not get far in her notes. Rand died of heart failure on March 6, 1982 at her home in New York City, and was interred in the Kensico Cemetery, Valhalla, New York. Rand's funeral was attended by some of her prominent followers, including Alan Greenspan. A six-foot floral arrangement in the shape of a dollar sign was placed near her casket. In her will, Rand named Leonard Peikoff the heir to her estate.

Philosophy

Objectivist movement
Photo of Ayn RandAyn Rand
Philosophy
Organizations
Theorists

Ayn Rand Institute

Other

LiteratureCapitalism: The Unknown Ideal
For the New Intellectual
Introduction to Objectivist Epistemology
The New Left
Objectivism: The Philosophy of Ayn Rand
Philosophy: Who Needs It
The Romantic Manifesto
The Virtue of Selfishness
Objectivist periodicals
The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies
The Fountainhead
Atlas Shrugged
Related topics
Main article: Objectivism (Ayn Rand)

Rand developed an integrated philosophical system called "Objectivism." Its essence is "the concept of man as a heroic being, with his own happiness as the moral purpose of his life, with productive achievement as his noblest activity, and reason as his only absolute."

As an atheist who rejected faith as antithetical to reason, Rand embraced philosophical realism and opposed all forms of what she regarded as mysticism and supernaturalism, including every organized religion. Rand wrote in her journals that Christianity was "the best kindergarten of communism possible." Rand argued for rational egoism (rational self-interest), as the only proper guiding moral principle. The individual should "exist for his own sake," she wrote in 1962, "neither sacrificing himself to others nor sacrificing others to himself."

Rand held that laissez-faire, free market capitalism is the only moral social system. Her political views were strongly individualist, anti-statist, anti-fascist and anti-Communist. Rand was strongly opposed to many liberal, conservative and libertarian politicians of her time, including prominent anti-Communists. Rand rejected anarcho-capitalism as "a contradiction in terms", a point on which she has been criticized by self-styled "anarchist Objectivists." Philosopher Chandran Kukathas said her "unremitting hostility towards the state and taxation sits inconsistently with a rejection of anarchism, and her attempts to resolve the difficulty are ill-thought out and unsystematic."

Rand acknowledged Aristotle as her greatest influence and found early inspiration in Friedrich Nietzsche, although she rejected what she considered his anti-reason stance. Ronald E. Merrill and David Ramsay Steele have argued that there exists a difference between her early and later views on the subject of "sacrificing" others. For example, the first edition of We the Living contained language which has been interpreted as advocating ruthless elitism: "What are your masses but mud to be ground underfoot, fuel to be burned for those who deserve it?" Robert Mayhew cautions, “We should not conclude too quickly that these passages are strong evidence of an earlier Nietzschean phase in Ayn Rand’s development, because such language can be strictly metaphorical (even if the result of an early interest in Nietzsche)”

Rand remarked that in the history of philosophy she could only recommend "three A's"—Aristotle, Aquinas, and Ayn Rand. Among the philosophers Rand held in particular disdain was Immanuel Kant, whom she referred to as a "monster" and "the most evil man in history". Rand was strongly opposed to the view that reason is unable to know reality "as it is in itself", which she ascribed to Kant, and she considered her philosophy to be the "exact opposite" of Kant's on "every fundamental issue". Objectivist philosophers George Walsh and Fred Seddon both argue that Rand misinterpreted Kant. In particular, Walsh argues that both philosophers adhere to many of the same basic positions, and that Rand exaggerated her differences with Kant. Walsh says that for many critics, Rand's writing on Kant is "ignorant and unworthy of discussion".

Rand scholars Douglas Den Uyl and Douglas B. Rasmussen, while stressing the importance and originality of her thought, describe her style as "literary, hyperbolic and emotional." Philosopher Jack Wheeler says that despite "the incessant bombast and continuous venting of Randian rage," Rand's ethics is "a most immense achievement, the study of which is vastly more fruitful than any other in contemporary thought." In 1976, she said that her most important contributions to philosophy were her "theory of concepts, ethics, and discovery in politics that evil—the violation of rights—consists of the initiation of force."

Reception

During Rand's lifetime, her work evoked extremes of both praise and condemnation. Rand's first novel, We the Living, was admired by the literary critic H.L. Mencken, her play Night of January 16th was both a critical and popular success, and The Fountainhead was hailed by a reviewer in The New York Times as "masterful". However, Rand's novels were derided by some critics when they were first published as long and melodramatic, and they became bestsellers largely due to word of mouth.

The first reviews Rand received were for her Broadway play Night of January 16th. Reviews of the production were largely positive, but Rand considered even positive reviews to be embarrassing because of significant changes made to her script by the producer. Rand believed that her first novel, We the Living, as not being widely reviewed, but Michael S. Berliner says "it was the most reviewed of any of her works," with approximately 125 different reviews being published in more than 200 publications. Overall these reviews were more positive than the reviews she received for her later work. Her 1938 novella Anthem received little attention from reviewers, both for its first publication in England and for subsequent re-issues.

Rand's first bestseller, The Fountainhead, received far fewer reviews than We the Living, and reviewers' opinions were mixed. There was a positive review in The New York Times that Rand greatly appreciated. The reviewer called Rand "a writer of great power" who wrote "brilliantly, beautifully and bitterly," and stated that "you will not be able to read this masterful book without thinking through some of the basic concepts of our time." There were other positive reviews, but Rand dismissed most of them as either not understanding her message or as being from unimportant publications. Some negative reviews focused on the length of the novel, such as one that called it "a whale of a book" and another that said "anyone who is taken in by it deserves a stern lecture on paper-rationing." Other negative reviews called the characters unsympathetic and Rand's style "offensively pedestrian."

Rand's 1957 novel Atlas Shrugged, was widely reviewed, and many of the reviews were strongly negative. In the National Review, conservative author Whittaker Chambers called the book "sophomoric" and "remarkably silly". He described the tone of the book as "shrillness without reprieve" and accused Rand of supporting the same godless system as the Soviets, claiming "From almost any page of Atlas Shrugged, a voice can be heard, from painful necessity, commanding: 'To a gas chamber—go!'" Atlas Shrugged received positive reviews from a few publications, including praise from the noted book reviewer John Chamberlain, but Rand scholar Mimi Reisel Gladstein later wrote that "reviewers seemed to vie with each other in a contest to devise the cleverest put-downs," calling it "execrable claptrap" and "a nightmare;" they said it was "written out of hate" and showed "remorseless hectoring and prolixity." Author Flannery O'Connor wrote in a letter to a friend that "The fiction of Ayn Rand is as low as you can get re fiction. I hope you picked it up off the floor of the subway and threw it in the nearest garbage pail."

Rand's nonfiction received far fewer reviews than her novels had. The tenor of the criticism for her first nonfiction book, For the New Intellectual, was similar to that for Atlas Shrugged, with philosopher Sidney Hook likening her certainty to "the way philosophy is written in the Soviet Union", and author Gore Vidal calling her viewpoint "nearly perfect in its immorality". Her subsequent books got progressively less attention from reviewers.

During Rand's lifetime her work received little attention from academic scholars. When the first academic book about Rand's philosophy appeared in 1971, its author declared writing about Rand "a treacherous undertaking" that could lead to "guilt by association" for taking her seriously. A few articles about Rand's ideas appeared in academic journals prior to her death in 1982, many of them in The Personalist. One of these was "On the Randian Argument" by Harvard University professor Robert Nozick, who argued that her meta-ethical argument is unsound and fails to solve the is–ought problem posed by David Hume. Some responses to Nozick by other academic philosophers were also published in The Personalist arguing that Nozick simply misstated Rand's case. Academic consideration of Rand as a literary figure during her life was even more limited. Gladstein was unable to find any scholarly articles about Rand's novels when she began researching her in 1973, and only three such articles appeared during the rest of the 1970s.

On the 100th anniversary of Rand's birth in 2005, Edward Rothstein, writing for The New York Times, referred to her fictional writing as quaint Utopian "retro fantasy" and programmatic neo-Romanticism of the misunderstood artist, while criticizing her characters' "isolated rejection of democratic society." In 2007, book critic Leslie Clark described her fiction as "romance novels with a patina of pseudo-philosophy." In 2009, GQ magazine's critic columnist Tom Carson described her books as "capitalism's version of middlebrow religious novels" such as Ben-Hur and the Left Behind series.

Legacy

An engraving in all capital letters that reads: "Throughout the centuries there were men who took first steps down new roads armed with nothing but their own vision." Ayn Rand
A quote from Rand's book The Fountainhead, on the wall directly across from the entrance to The American Adventure rotunda at Walt Disney World's Epcot
See also: Objectivist movement

Rand's books continue to be widely sold and read, with 25 million copies sold as of 2007, and 800,000 more being sold each year according to the Ayn Rand Institute. In addition, the Ayn Rand Institute provides 400,000 copies of Rand’s novels every year for free to high schools throughout the United States. She has also influenced notable people in different fields. Examples include philosophers John Hospers, George H. Smith, Allan Gotthelf and Tara Smith, economists Alan Greenspan, George Reisman, Murray Rothbard, and Walter E. Williams; psychologist Edwin A. Locke; historian Robert Hessen; and political writer Charles Murray.

Popular interest

In 1991, a survey conducted for the Library of Congress and the Book-of-the-Month Club by the Information Analysis System Corporation asked 5,000 Book-of-the-Month club members what the most influential book in the respondent's life was. Rand's Atlas Shrugged was the second most popular choice, after the Bible. Although Atlas Shrugged was not listed on the 1998 Modern Library "100 Best Novels" list, the Internet-generated readers poll placed four of her books on the top 100 Novels list, with it taking the top position, while another, The Virtue of Selfishness, topped the Readers list for 100 Best Nonfiction. Books by other authors about Rand and her philosophy also appeared on the nonfiction list. The validity of such lists has been disputed. Freestar Media/Zogby polls conducted in 2007 found that around eight percent of American adults had read Atlas Shrugged, while a 2010 Zogby online survey showed that 29 percent of the adult respondents said that they had read the novel, and of those polled, 49 percent agreed that the novel had "changed the way they think about political or ethical issues," versus 45 percent who disagreed. Although Rand's influence has been greatest in the United States, there has been international interest in her work.

Among novelists, Ira Levin was an admirer of Rand's fiction, Robert Heinlein praised Rand in the text of his novel The Moon is a Harsh Mistress, and James Clavell called Rand "one of the real, true talents on this earth." Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry has described the influence of Rand's theory of art on his own work, and novelist Erika Holzer has credited Rand, whom she knew personally, as the leading influence on her fiction writing. Other writers and artists who have cited Rand as an important influence on their lives and thought include Marvel Comics artist Steve Ditko, novelist Terry Goodkind, and Neil Peart, drummer and lyricist for the Canadian progressive rock band Rush.

In Hollywood, actors Angelina Jolie, Brad Pitt, Christina Ricci, Rob Lowe and Eva Mendes have all spoken positively about her work. Actress Raquel Welch, who met Rand, has referred to her as one of the "all-time great human being... certainly one of the extraordinary people of the century," and Farrah Fawcett, another actress whom Rand hoped would play Dagny Taggart in a 1978 TV version of Atlas Shrugged, declared the author a "literary genius." Magician and social commentator Penn Jillette has repeatedly expressed his agreement with and admiration for Rand and Atlas Shrugged.

In the business world, John Allison of BB&T and Ed Snider of Comcast Spectacor have funded the promotion of Rand's ideas, while Mark Cuban, owner of the Dallas Mavericks, and John P. Mackey, CEO of Whole Foods, among others, have said they consider Rand crucial to their success. Shantanu Narayen, CEO of Adobe Systems, reports that Atlas Shrugged is the "one" book which has "stayed with me over the years... It's a powerful story about the importance of individuality, originality and the social value of intellectual freedom."

Rand and her works have been referred to in a variety of media. References to her have appeared on television shows including animated sitcoms, live-action comedies, dramas, and game shows. Two movies have been made about Rand's life. A 1997 documentary film, Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life, was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature. The Passion of Ayn Rand, an independent film based on her life, was made in 1999, starring Helen Mirren as Rand and Peter Fonda as her husband. The film was based on the book of the same name by Barbara Branden, and won several awards. Rand's image also appears on a U.S. postage stamp designed by artist Nick Gaetano.

Rand or her works have been referenced on such television shows as Mad Men and Frasier, animated series such as Futurama, South Park and The Simpsons, and on talk shows such as The Daily Show with Jon Stewart, The Colbert Report and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon. Rand herself, or characters based on her, figure prominently in novels by such authors as William F. Buckley, Mary Gaitskill, Matt Ruff, J. Neil Schulman and Kay Nolte Smith. The references to Rand in these works are not always positive. Nick Gillespie, editor in chief of Reason, has remarked that "Rand's is a tortured immortality, one in which she's as likely to be a punch line as a protagonist..." with "jibes at Rand as cold and inhuman, run through the popular culture."

Political influence

See also: Libertarianism and Objectivism
In a large outdoor crowd, a man holds up a poster with the words "I am John Galt" in all capital letters
A protester at an April 2009 Tea Party rally carries a sign referring to John Galt, the hero of Rand's novel Atlas Shrugged

Although she rejected the labels "conservative" and "libertarian," Jim Powell, a senior fellow at the Cato Institute, considers Rand one of the three most important women (along with Rose Wilder Lane and Isabel Paterson) of modern American libertarianism, and David Nolan, one of the founders of the Libertarian Party, stated that "without Ayn Rand, the libertarian movement would not exist." Conversations with Rand in the early 1960s, for example, moved John Hospers, the first presidential nominee of the Libertarian Party, to his libertarian views.

Rand has had continuing influence on right-wing politics and libertarianism. In his history of the libertarian movement, journalist Brian Doherty described her as "the most influential libertarian of the twentieth century to the public at large," and biographer Jennifer Burns referred to her as "the ultimate gateway drug to life on the right." Despite Rand's untraditionally Republican stance as a pro-choice atheist, the political figures who cite Rand as an influence are most often conservative or libertarian members of the United States Republican Party. Martin Anderson, chief domestic policy adviser for President Ronald Reagan, identifies himself as a disciple of Rand, and Reagan described himself as an "admirer" of Rand in private correspondence in the 1960s. A 1987 article in The New York Times referred to her as the the Reagan administration's "novelist laureate". U.S. Congressmen Bob Barr, Ron Paul, and Paul Ryan have acknowledged her influence on their lives, as has Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States Clarence Thomas.

Conservative and libertarian talk show hosts such as Glenn Beck, Neal Boortz, John Stossel, and Rush Limbaugh have recommended Atlas Shrugged to their audiences.

The financial crisis of 2007–2011 spurred renewed interest in her works, especially Atlas Shrugged, which some saw as foreshadowing the crisis, and opinion articles compared real-world events with the plot of the novel. During this time, signs mentioning Rand and her fictional hero John Galt appeared at Tea Party protests, while the Cato Institute's Will Wilkinson quipped that "going Galt" had become the "libertarian-conservative's version of progressives threatening to move to Canada."

During this period there was also increased criticism of her ideas, especially from the political left, with critics blaming the economic crisis on her support of selfishness and free markets, particularly through her influence on Alan Greenspan. For example, Mother Jones remarked that "Rand's particular genius has always been her ability to turn upside down traditional hierarchies and recast the wealthy, the talented, and the powerful as the oppressed", while The Nation alleged similarities between the "moral syntax of Randianism" and fascism.

Academia

Since Rand's death in 1982, interest in her work has gradually increased. Historian Jennifer Burns has identified "three overlapping waves" of scholarly interest in Rand, the most recent of which is "an explosion of scholarship" in the 2000s. However, few universities currently include Rand or Objectivism as a philosophical specialty or research area, with many literature and philosophy departments dismissing her as a pop culture phenomenon rather than a subject for serious study.

Some academic philosophers have criticized Rand for what they consider her lack of rigor and limited understanding of philosophical subject matter. The Philosophical Lexicon, a satirical web site maintained by philosophers Daniel Dennett and Asbjørn Steglich-Petersen, defines a 'rand' as: "An angry tirade occasioned by mistaking philosophical disagreement for a personal attack and/or evidence of unspeakable moral corruption." Chris Matthew Sciabarra has called into question the motives of some of Rand's critics because of what he calls the unusual hostility of their criticisms. Sciabarra writes, "The left was infuriated by her anti-communist, pro-capitalist politics, whereas the right was disgusted with her atheism and civil libertarianism."

Academics with an interest in Rand, such as Gladstein, Sciabarra, Allan Gotthelf, Edwin A. Locke and Tara Smith, have taught her work in academic institutions. Sciabarra co-edits the Journal of Ayn Rand Studies, a nonpartisan peer-reviewed journal dedicated to the study of Rand's philosophical and literary work. In 1987 Gotthelf helped found the Ayn Rand Society, and has been active in sponsoring seminars about Rand and her ideas. Smith has written several academic books and papers on Rand's ideas, including Ayn Rand's Normative Ethics: The Virtuous Egoist, a volume on Rand's ethical theory published by Cambridge University Press. Rand's ideas have also been made subjects of study at Clemson and Duke universities. Scholars of English and American literature have largely ignored her work, although attention to her literary work has increased since the 1990s. In the Literary Encyclopedia entry for Rand written in 2001, John Lewis declared that "Rand wrote the most intellectually challenging fiction of her generation". In a 1999 interview in the Chronicle of Higher Education, Rand scholar Chris Matthew Sciabarra commented, "I know they laugh at Rand," while forecasting a growth of interest in her work in the academic community.

Institutes

In 1985, Leonard Peikoff established the Ayn Rand Institute, which "works to introduce young people to Ayn Rand's novels, to support scholarship and research based on her ideas, and to promote the principles of reason, rational self-interest, individual rights and laissez-faire capitalism to the widest possible audience." In 1990, David Kelley founded the Institute for Objectivist Studies, now known as The Atlas Society. In 2001 historian John McCaskey organized the Anthem Foundation for Objectivist Scholarship, which provides grants for scholarly work on Objectivism in academia. The foundation has supported research at the University of Texas at Austin, the University of Pittsburgh, Duke University and other schools.

Selected bibliography

Main article: Bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism
Novels
Other fiction
Non-fiction

Notes

  1. "Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand: How do you pronounce 'Ayn'?". Ayn Rand Institute. Retrieved February 6, 2010.
  2. The following sources identify Rand as a philosopher:
    • Saxon 1982, p. 36. "Ayn Rand, the writer and philosopher of objectivism who espoused 'rational selfishness' and capitalism unbound, died yesterday morning at her home on East 34th Street."
    • "Preface" in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. x. "... this book is devoted to an assessment of Ayn Rand the philosopher. All the contributors to this volume agree that she is a philosopher and not a mere popularizer. Moreover, all agree that many of her insights on philosophy and her own philosophic ideas deserve critical attention by professional philosophers, whatever the final merit of those inquiries and theories. It is appropriate, therefore, that all our contributors are themselves professional philosophers."
    • Sciabarra 1995, p. 1. "Ayn Rand is one of the most widely read philosophers of the twentieth century."
    • Kukathas 1998, p. 55. "Ayn Rand was a Russian-born novelist and philosopher who exerted considerable influence in the conservative and libertarian intellectual movements in the post-war USA."
    • Badhwar & Long 2010. "Ayn Rand (1905–1982) was a philosopher and a novelist who outlined a comprehensive philosophy, including an epistemology and a theory of art, in her novels and essays."
  3. ^ Rand, Ayn (1944). "The Only Path to Tomorrow". Reader's Digest. 44 (261): 88–90. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Reprinted inRand, Ayn (1991). Schwartz, Peter (ed.). The Ayn Rand Column. Oceanside, California: Second Renaissance Books. pp. 105–108. ISBN 1-56114-099-6. OCLC 26061978.
  4. "Racism" in Rand 1964, p. 149
  5. Rand, Ayn (1967). ""Extremism," or The Art of Smearing". Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal. New York: Signet. p. 180. ISBN 0-451-14795-2. OCLC 24916193.
  6. "Introduction" in Rand 1964, p. ix
  7. Rand, Ayn (1999). "The Left: Old and New". Return of the Primitive: The Anti-Industrial Revolution. Edited by Peter Schwartz. New York: Meridian. p. 62. ISBN 0-452-01184-1. OCLC 39281836.
  8. Rand, Ayn (1971). "Brief Summary". The Objectivist. 10 (9): 1. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  9. Heller 2009, pp. 3–5; Britting 2004, pp. 2–3; Burns 2009, pp. 9
  10. Heller 2009, p. 5
  11. Heller 2009, pp. 11–27
  12. Branden 1986, pp. 35–39
  13. Britting 2004, pp. 14–20
  14. Burns 2009, p. 15
  15. ^ Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (1999). "The Rand Transcript". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies. 1 (1): 1–26. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  16. Peikoff 1991, pp. 451–460
  17. Britting 2004, pp. 17–18, 22–24
  18. Britting 2004, pp. 17, 22
  19. Heller 2009, p. 47; Britting 2004, p. 24
  20. ^ Heller 2009, pp. 49–50
  21. Heller 2009, pp. 50–53; Britting 2004, p. 30
  22. Heller 2009, p. 53
  23. Heller 2009, pp. 57–60
  24. Britting 2004, p. 33
  25. "Frequently Asked Questions About Ayn Rand: What is the origin of "Rand"?". Ayn Rand Institute. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
  26. Rand said the origin of Ayn was Finnish (Rand 1995, p. 40) harv error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFRand1995 (help), but some biographical sources question this, suggesting it may come from a Hebrew nickname. Heller 2009, pp. 55–57 provides a detailed discussion.
  27. Britting 2004, pp. 34–36
  28. Britting 2004, pp. 35–40; Paxton 1998, pp. 74, 81, 84
  29. Heller 2009, pp. 96–98; Britting 2004, pp. 43–44, 52
  30. Rand 1997, pp. 3, 20
  31. Rand 1997, pp. 27, 38.
  32. Harriman, David, Journals of Ayn Rand, 1997, Dutton, pp.36-39.
  33. Burns 2009, p. 25
  34. Burns 2009, p. 25, 301, n32
  35. Rand 1997, pp. 21; Burns 2009, pp. 24–25;Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (1998). "A Renaissance in Rand Scholarship". Reason Papers. 23: 132–159. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help);Reed, Adam (2009). "Ronald E. Merrill and the Discovery of Ayn Rand's Nietzschean Period". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies. 10 (2): 325–326. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  36. Britting 2004, pp. 40, 42
  37. Rand 1971, pp. 3–11 harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFRand1971 (help)
  38. Johnson, Donald Leslie (2005). The Fountainheads: Wright, Rand, the FBI and Hollywood. Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland & Company. pp. 55–56. ISBN 0-7864-1958-X. OCLC 56617298. cf. Rand 1971, pp. 13–14 harvnb error: multiple targets (3×): CITEREFRand1971 (help)
  39. Rand, Ayn (1995) . "Foreword". We The Living (60th Anniversary ed.). New York: Dutton. p. xviii. ISBN 0-525-94054-5. OCLC 32780458.
  40. Paxton 1998, p. 104
  41. Gladstein 1999, p. 11
  42. Gladstein 1999, p. 29; Burns 2009, p. 50; Heller 2009, p. 102
  43. Rand, Ayn (1996) . The Fountainhead. New York: Signet. p. 710. ISBN 0-451-19115-3.
  44. Britting 2004, p. 57
  45. Burns 2009, p. 114; Heller 2009, p. 249; Branden 1986, pp. 188–189
  46. Burns 2009, pp. 75–78
  47. Britting 2004, pp. 61–78
  48. Britting 2004, pp. 58–61
  49. Burns 2009, p. 85
  50. Burns 2009, p. 89
  51. Burns 2009, p. 178; Heller, pp. 304–305 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHeller (help)
  52. According to the Ayn Rand Institute, by April 2008 the novel had sold over 6.5 million copies."Sales of Ayn Rand Books Reach 25 million Copies". Ayn Rand Institute. April 7, 2008. Retrieved July 31, 2009.
  53. Britting 2004, pp. 68–80; Branden 1986, pp. 183–198
  54. Rand 1997, pp. 243–310
  55. Burns 2009, pp. 130–131; Heller 2009, pp. 214–215; Rand 1997, p. 131
  56. Heller 2009, p. 217
  57. Burns 2009, pp. 100, 123
  58. Burns 2009, p. 101
  59. Mayhew 2005, pp. 91–93
  60. "Ayn Rand's HUAC Testimony" in Mayhew 2005, pp. 188–189
  61. Mayhew 2005, p. 83
  62. Britting 2004, p. 71
  63. Rand 1992, p. 1065
  64. Branden 1986, pp. 256–264, 331–343
  65. Rand 1997, p. 704
  66. Rand, Ayn (1963) . For the New Intellectual. New York: Signet. p. 88. ISBN 0-451-16308-7. OCLC 36698277.
  67. Gladstein 1999, p. 42
  68. Burns 2009, p. 2
  69. Younkins, Edward W., ed. (2007). "Introduction". Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged: A Philosophical and Literary Companion. Burlington, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing. p. 1. ISBN 978-0-7546-5533-6. OCLC 69792104.
  70. Burns 2009, p. 178; Heller 2009, pp. 303–306
  71. Gladstein 2009, pp. 105–106; Burns 2009, pp. 232–233
  72. Burns 2009, pp. 236–237
  73. Heller 2009, p. 303
  74. Doherty 2007, pp. 237–238; Heller 2009, p. 329; Burns 2009, p. 235
  75. Doherty 2007, p. 235; Burns 2009, p. 235
  76. Branden 1986, pp. 315–316
  77. Gladstein 1999, p. 14
  78. Branden 1986, p. 318
  79. Gladstein 1999, p. 16
  80. Heller 2009, pp. 320–321
  81. Rand 2005, pp. 89–91; Burns 2009, p. 265; Heller 2009, p. 352
  82. Rand 2005, p. 96; Burns 2009, p. 266
  83. Rand 2005, pp. 102–104; Burns 2009, p. 266; Heller 2009, p. 391
  84. Heller 2009, p. 362; Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2003). Ayn Rand, Homosexuality, and Human Liberation. Cape Town, South Africa: Leap Publishing. pp. 7–8. ISBN 0-958-4573-3-6.
  85. Burns 2009, pp. 204–206; Heller 2009, pp. 322–323
  86. Britting 2004, p. 101
  87. Branden 1986, pp. 344–358
  88. Rand, Ayn (1968). "To Whom It May Concern". The Objectivist. 7 (5). New York: 1–8. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  89. "Break Free! An Interview with Nathaniel Branden" (PDF). Reason: 13. 1971. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  90. Rand, Ayn, "The Question of Scholarships," The Objectivist, June, 1966, reprinted as chapter 7 of The Voice of Reason: Essays in Objectivist Thought, L. Peikoff, edit., NAL, 1990.
  91. McConnell 2010, pp. 520–521
  92. Branden 1986, pp. 386–389
  93. Branden 1986, pp. 392–395
  94. Rand 1997, p. 697
  95. Saxon 1982, p. 36
  96. "Ayn Rand". Find a Grave. Retrieved August 10, 2010.
  97. Branden 1986, p. 403
  98. "About the Author" in Rand 1992, pp. 1170–1171
  99. Den Uyl, Douglas J. & Rasmussen, Douglas B. "Ayn Rand's Realism" in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, pp. 3–20
  100. Burns 2009, pp. 43
  101. Rand, Ayn (1989). "Introducing Objectivism". The Voice of Reason. Edited by Leonard Peikoff. New York: New American Library. p. 3. ISBN 0-453-00634-5. OCLC 18048955. This article originally appeared in the Los Angeles Times on June 17, 1962.
  102. Toffler, Alvin (1964). "Playboy Interview: Ayn Rand". Playboy. Vol. 11, no. 3. pp. 35–43. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  103. Dowd, Maureen (September 13, 1987). "Where 'Atlas Shrugged' Is Still Read - Forthrightly". The New York Times. p. E5.
  104. Thomas, William R. (2008). "Objectivism against Anarchy". In Machan, Tibor; Long, Roderick (eds.). Anarchism/Minarchism. Aldershot: Ashgate. pp. 39–57. ISBN 0-7546-6066-4. OCLC 85766066. {{cite book}}: External link in |chapterurl= (help); Unknown parameter |chapterurl= ignored (|chapter-url= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help)
  105. ^ Kukathas 1998, p. 55
  106. "About the Author" in Rand 1992, p. 1171
  107. Sciabarra 1995, pp. 100–106
  108. ^ Merrill, Ronald E. (1991). The Ideas of Ayn Rand. La Salle, Illinois: Open Court Publishing. pp. 38–39. ISBN 0-8126-9157-1. OCLC 23254190.
  109. Steele, David Ramsay (1988). "Alice in Wonderland". Liberty. 1 (5): 35–43. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) Reprinted from Free Life: Journal of the Libertarian Alliance 5 (1).
  110. Mayhew, Robert (2004). We the Living '36 and '59. In Robert Mayhew, Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, p. 205.
  111. Sciabarra 1995, p. 12
  112. ^ Rand, Ayn (1971). "Brief Summary". The Objectivist. 10 (9): 4. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  113. ^ Walsh, George V. (2000). "Ayn Rand and the Metaphysics of Kant". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies. 2 (1): 69–103. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  114. Seddon, Fred (2003). Ayn Rand, Objectivists, and the History of Philosophy. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America. pp. 63–81. ISBN 0-7618-2308-5. OCLC 51969016.
  115. Den Uyl, Douglas; Rasmussen, Douglas (1978). "Nozick On the Randian Argument". The Personalist. 59: 203. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  116. Wheeler, Jack. "Rand and Aristotle" in Den Uyl & Rasmussen 1986, p. 96
  117. Rand 2005, p. 166
  118. Rand 1995, pp. 10, 13–14 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFRand1995 (help)
  119. ^ Branden 1986, pp. 122–124
  120. ^ Pruette, Lorine (May 16, 1943). "Battle Against Evil". The New York Times. p. BR7. {{cite news}}: Invalid |ref=harv (help) Reprinted in McGrath, Charles, ed. (1998). Books of the Century. New York: Times Books. pp. 135–136. ISBN 0-8129-2965-9..
  121. ^ Gladstein 1999, pp. 117–119
  122. Paxton 1998, p. 120; Britting 2004, p. 87
  123. Berliner, Michael S. (2004). "Reviews of We the Living". In Mayhew, Robert (ed.). Essays on Ayn Rand's We the Living. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 147–151. ISBN 0-7391-0698-8. OCLC 52979186.
  124. Berliner, Michael S. (2005). "Reviews of Anthem". In Mayhew, Robert (ed.). Essays on Ayn Rand's Anthem. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 55–60. ISBN 0-7391-1031-4. OCLC 57577415.
  125. ^ Berliner, Michael S. (2006). "The Fountainhead Reviews". In Mayhew, Robert (ed.). Essays on Ayn Rand's The Fountainhead. Lanham, Maryland: Lexington Books. pp. 77–82. ISBN 0-7391-1578-2. OCLC 70707828.
  126. Rand 1995, p. 74 harvnb error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFRand1995 (help)
  127. ^ Berliner, Michael S. "The Atlas Shrugged Reviews" in Mayhew 2009, pp. 133–137
  128. Chambers, Whittaker (December 8, 1957). "Big Sister is Watching You". National Review: 594–596.
  129. O'Connor, Flannery (1979). Fitzgerald, Sally (ed.). The Habit of Being: Letters of Flannery O'Connor. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 398. ISBN 0-374-52104-2.
  130. ^ Gladstein 1999, p. 119
  131. Burns 1999, pp. 193–194 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBurns1999 (help)
  132. Hook, Sidney (April 9, 1961). "Each Man for Himself". The New York Times Book Review. p. 28.
  133. Vidal, Gore (1962). "Two Immoralists: Orville Prescott and Ayn Rand". Rocking the Boat. Boston: Little, Brown. p. 234. OCLC 291123. Reprinted from Esquire, July 1961.
  134. ^ Sciabarra 1995, p. 1
  135. O'Neill, William F. (1977) . With Charity Toward None: An Analysis of Ayn Rand's Philosophy. New York: Littlefield, Adams & Company. p. 3. ISBN 0-8226-0179-6. OCLC 133489.
  136. Gladstein 1999, p. 115
  137. Nozick, Robert (1971). "On the Randian Argument". The Personalist. 52: 282–304. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  138. These includedMachan, Tibor (1977). "Nozick and Rand on Property Rights". The Personalist. 58: 192–195. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help) andDen Uyl, Douglas; Rasmussen, Douglas (1978). "Nozick On the Randian Argument". The Personalist. 59: 184–205. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  139. Gladstein 2005, pp. 57–58, 63. The articles identified by Gladstein are:Gordon, Philip (1977). "The Extroflective Hero: A Look at Ayn Rand". Journal of Popular Culture. 10 (4): 701–710. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help);McGann, Kevin (1978). "Ayn Rand in the Stockyard of the Spirit". In Peary, Gerald; Shatzkin, Roger (eds) (eds.). The Modern American Novel and the Movies. New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing. ISBN 0-8044-2682-1. OCLC 4192104. {{cite book}}: |editor2-first= has generic name (help); Unknown parameter |lastauthoramp= ignored (|name-list-style= suggested) (help); and her own article,Gladstein, Mimi R. (1978). "Ayn Rand and Feminism: An Unlikely Alliance". College English. 39 (6): 25–30. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  140. Rothstein, Edward (February 2, 2005). "Considering the Last Romantic, Ayn Rand, at 100". The New York Times.
  141. Clark, Leslie (February 17, 2007). "The philosophical art of looking out number one". The Herald. Retrieved April 2, 2010.
  142. The Bitch is Back by Andrew Corsello, GQ magazine, October 27, 2009
  143. "Sales of Ayn Rand Books Reach 25 million Copies". Ayn Rand Institute. April 7, 2008. Retrieved April 5, 2010.
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  145. Fein, Esther B. (November 20, 1991). "Book Notes". The New York Times. p. C26.
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  149. "Atlas Shrugged Influential, Poll Reveals". ARI. 2010. Retrieved 2010-12-6. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  150. Gladstein 2005, pp. 66–67
  151. Delbroy, Bibek (2006). "Ayn Rand—The Indian Connection". In Machan, Tibor R (ed.). Ayn Rand at 100. New Delhi, India: Pragun Publications. pp. 2–4. ISBN 81-89645-57-9. OCLC 76829742.
  152. Cohen, David (December 7, 2001). "A growing concern". The Guardian. London.
  153. Binotto, Robert J. "Celebrity Rand Fans". The Atlas Society. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
  154. Hauser, Helen A., "Harnessing the Star Trek Phenomenon," South Atlantic Bulletin, South Atlantic Modern Language Association, vol. 42, no. 4 (Nov., 1977), pp. 144-148.
  155. Holzer, Erika (2005). Ayn Rand: My Fiction Writing Teacher. Indio, California: Madison Press. pp. 15–17. ISBN 0-615-13041-0.
  156. Sciabarra 2004, pp. 8–11
  157. Perry, William E. (May 17, 2006). "The Randian Fantasies of Terry Goodkind". The Atlas Society. Retrieved August 27, 2009.
  158. Sciabarra, Chris Matthew (2002). "Rand, Rush, and Rock". The Journal of Ayn Rand Studies. 4 (1): 161–185. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  159. ^ Garbage and Gravitas by Corey Robin, The Nation, May 20, 2010
  160. McConnell 2010, pp. 566–569
  161. Jillette, Penn (November 3, 2007). "Penn Jillette Speaks About Libertarianism With Glenn Beck". libertymaven.com. Retrieved September 30, 2010.
  162. "BB&T's John Allison to retire as CEO on Dec. 31". BB&T. Retrieved December 7, 2010.
  163. "Ayn Rand's Atlas Shrugged, the Ed Snider Speech". Liquida. 10-20-07. Retrieved January 4, 2011. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  164. "Silicon Valley Stars Remember the Books that Moved Them". siliconvalley.com. 12-10-2010. Retrieved December 14, 2010. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  165. ^ Sciabarra 2004, pp. 4–5
  166. "Ayn Rand: A Sense of Life – Awards". The New York Times. Retrieved August 2, 2009.
  167. Elber, Lynn (September 13, 1999). "'Ally,' 'Practice' grab top honors at Emmy awards". Ventura County Star. Associated Press. p. A01.
  168. Tourtellotte, Bob (January 24, 2000). "Family dramas top Golden Globe Awards". The Seattle Times. Reuters. p. E1.
  169. Wozniak, Maurice D., ed. (2001). Krause-Minkus Standard Catalog of U.S. Stamps (5th ed.). Krause Publications. p. 380. ISBN 0-87349-321-4.
  170. Gillespe, Nick. "Rand-O-Rama: The Long Shelf Life of Ayn Rand's Legacy". Reason.tv. Retrieved July 13, 2010.
  171. Sciabarra 2004, p. 3
  172. "Book Bag: Marking the Ayn Rand Centennial". Day to Day. February 2, 2005. National Public Radio. {{cite episode}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |episodelink= (help); Unknown parameter |serieslink= ignored (|series-link= suggested) (help)
  173. Burns 2009, p. 258; Rand 2005, p. 73
  174. Powell, Jim (1996). "Rose Wilder Lane, Isabel Paterson, and Ayn Rand: Three Women Who Inspired the Modern Libertarian Movement". The Freeman: Ideas on Liberty. 46 (5): 322. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  175. Branden, Barbara, The Passion of Ayn Rand, Doubleday, 1986, p. 414.
  176. Burns 2009, pp. 185–188
  177. Burns 2009, p. 4; Gladstein 2009, pp. 107–108, 124
  178. Doherty 2007, p. 11
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References

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Main article: Bibliography for Ayn Rand and Objectivism

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