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2011 military intervention in Libya

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Military intervention in Libya
Part of 2011 Libyan uprising

Mapped conflicts
Date19 March 2011–ongoing
LocationLibya
Status Ongoing (SEAD, no-fly zone and naval blockade)
Belligerents

Countries enforcing UN SC Resolution 1973:

 Belgium
 Canada
 Denmark
 France
 Greece
 Italy
 Netherlands
 Norway
 Qatar
 Romania
 Spain
 Turkey
 United Kingdom

 United States

 Libyan Arab Jamahiriya

Commanders and leaders

France Édouard Guillaud
United Kingdom Stuart Peach
United States Carter Ham
United States Sam Locklear

Italy Rinaldo Veri

Libya Muammar Gaddafi
Libya Saif al-Islam al-Gaddafi
Libya Khamis al-Gaddafi
Libya Al-Saadi al-Gaddafi

Libya Abu-Bakr Yunis Jabr
Casualties and losses
United States 1 USAF F-15E Strike Eagle crashed (both pilots survived) 16 soldiers killed and 70 vehicles destroyed near Benghazi: 14 tanks, 20 APCs, 2 mobile MRLs, 1 mobile SAM and 33 Jeeps, SUVs, technicals or trucks;
4 out-of-service mobile MRLs destroyed in Tripoli;
20 surface-to-air missile sites bombed
Unknown number of civilian casualties*
*Libyan government claims 64–90 civilians killed and 150 wounded. The U.S. military claims it has no knowledge of civilian casualties.

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First Libyan Civil War

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Military intervention in Libya

Template:Fix bunching The military intervention in Libya began in March, 2011, when a coalition consisting of Canada, France, Italy, the United Kingdom and the United States launched military operations to enforce a no-fly zone established over Libyan airspace by United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on 17 March 2011. On 19 March, military operations began, with US and British forces firing over 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, the French Air Force and British Royal Air Force undertaking sorties across Libya and a naval blockade by the Royal Navy. Air strikes against Libyan Army tanks and vehicles by French jets have since been confirmed. On 22 March, the French aircraft carrier Charles de Gaulle arrived off the coast to provide military planners with a rapid-response air combat capability. The official names for the interventions by the coalition members are Opération Harmattan by France; Operation Ellamy by the UK; Operation Mobile for the Canadian participation and Operation Odyssey Dawn for the U.S. Since the beginning of the war, the initial coalition has expanded to 14 nations, with newer nations mostly enforcing the no-fly zone and naval blockade. The effort is largely led by the United States, with command shared with France and the United Kingdom. NATO took control of the arms embargo on 23 March, in an operation named "Unified Protector". An attempt to unify the military command in the air war against Libya (whilst keeping political and strategic control with a small group), failed over objections by the Turkish, German and French governments.

Proposal for the no-fly zone

Both Libyan and international states and organisations called for a no-fly zone over Libya in light of airstrikes against Libyan rebels conducted by Muammar Gaddafi's military in the 2011 Libyan uprising.

Chronology

21 February 2011 - Libyan deputy Permanent Representative to U.N. Ambassador Ibrahim Dabbashi " on the U.N. to impose a no-fly zone on all Tripoli to cut off all supplies of arms and mercenaries to the regime."
28 February 2011 - British Prime Minister David Cameron proposed the idea of a no-fly zone to prevent Gaddafi from "airlifting mercenaries" and "using his military aeroplanes and armoured helicopters against civilians."
7 March 2011 - U.S. Ambassador to NATO Ivo Daalder announced that NATO decided to step up surveillance missions of E-3 AWACS aircraft to 24 hours a day. On the same day it was reported that an anonymous U.N. diplomat confirmed to Agence France Presse that France and Britain were drawing up a resolution on the no-fly zone that would be considered by the United Nations Security Council during the same week. The Gulf Cooperation Council also on that day called upon the U.N. Security Council to "take all necessary measures to protect civilians, including enforcing a no-fly zone over Libya."
VOA News report on the United States support of the no-fly zone
9 March 2011 - The head of the Libyan National Transitional Council, Mustafa Abdul Jalil, "pleaded for the international community to move quickly to impose a no-fly zone over Libya, declaring that any delay would result in more casualties". Three days later, he stated that if pro-Gaddafi forces reached Benghazi, then they would kill "half a million" people. He stated, "If there is no no-fly zone imposed on Gaddafi's regime, and his ships are not checked, we will have a catastrophe in Libya."

On 12 March, thousands of Libyan women marched in the streets of the rebel-held town of Benghazi, calling for the imposition of a no-fly zone over Libya.

9 March 2011 - The United States had naval forces positioned off the coast of Libya, as well as forces already in the region, including the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise. Canada had dispatched naval frigate HMCS Charlottetown to the area, reinforcing the display of Western power. Canadian Defence Minister Peter MacKay stated, "We are there for all inevitabilities. And NATO is looking at this as well … This is taken as a precautionary and staged measure." Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper stated that the Canadian Forces Air Command is ready to contribute to setting up a no-fly zone if the U.N. and NATO decided to do this.
12 March 2011 - The Arab League "called on the United Nations Security Council to impose a no-fly zone over Libya in a bid to protect civilians from air attack". The Arab League's request was announced by Oman's Foreign minister, Yusuf bin Alawi bin Abdullah, who stated that all member states present at the meeting agreed with the proposal.
15 March 2011 - A resolution for a no-fly zone was proposed and tabled by Nawaf Salam, Lebanon's Ambassador to the United Nations. The resolution was immediately backed by France and the United Kingdom.
17 March 2011 - The United Nations Security Council, acting under the authority of Chapter VII of the U.N. Charter, approved a no-fly zone by a vote of 10 in favour, zero against, and five abstentions, via United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. The five abstensions were: Brazil, Russia, India, China, and Germany. Less than 24 hours later, Libya announced that it will halt all military operations in the country in response to the Security Council resolution.
18 March 2011 - The Libyan foreign minister, Mussa Kussa, said he has declared a ceasefire, attributing the U.N. resolution. However, artillery shelling on Misurata and Ajdabiya continued, and government soldiers continued approaching Benghazi. Government troops and tanks entered the city on 19 March. Artillery and mortars were also fired into the city.
19 March 2011 - Forces from many nations intervened militarily in Libya in support of an armed uprising and to enforce a no-fly zone established over Libyan airspace by the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973 on 17 March 2011. The resolution calls for using "all necessary means" to protect civilians and civilian-populated areas, imposes a no-fly zone, and calls for an immediate ceasefire, while also strengthening travel bans, arms embargoes, and asset freezes.

Enforcement

Coloured in blue are the nations currently involved in bombings or implementing the no-fly zone over Libya (coloured in green)

Initial NATO planning for a possible no-fly zone took place in late February and early March, especially by NATO members France and the United Kingdom. France and the United Kingdom were early supporters of a no-fly zone and have sufficient airpower to impose a no-fly zone over the rebel-held areas, although they might need additional assistance for a more extensive exclusion zone.

The U.S. has the air assets necessary to enforce a no-fly zone, but was cautious to support such an action prior to obtaining a legal basis for violating Libya's sovereignty. However, due to the sensitive nature of military action by the U.S. against an Arab nation, the U.S. has sought Arab participation in the enforcement of a no-fly zone.

At a congressional hearing, United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates explained that "a no-fly zone begins with an attack on Libya to destroy the air defences ... and then you can fly planes around the country and not worry about our guys being shot down. But that's the way it starts."

On 19 March, the deployment of French fighter jets over Libya began, and other countries began their individual operations. Phase One started the same day with the involvement of the United States, United Kingdom, France, Italy and Canada.

Operation names

Forces committed

Bases committed

File:Libya 2011 Operating Bases.gif
Coalition fighter aircraft by country of operating base

Not currently committing forces

  •  Albania: Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha said that his country is ready to help. Prime Minister Berisha supported the decision of the coalition to protect civilians from the Libyan regime of Gaddafi. Berisha also offered assistance to facilitate the international coalition actions. In a press release of the Prime Ministry, these operations are considered entirely legitimate, having as main objective the protection of freedoms and universal rights that Libyans deserve.
  •  Australia: Prime Minister Julia Gillard and others in her Labour-led government have said Australia will not contribute militarily to enforcement of the UN mandate despite registering strong support for its implementation, but ministers in the opposition Liberal Party have called upon the government to consider dispatching Australian military assets if requested by NATO. Defence Minister Stephen Smith said the government would be willing to send C-17 Globemaster heavy transport planes for use in international operations "as part of a humanitarian contribution", if needed.
  •  Bulgaria: Bulgarian prime minister Boyko Borisov said that Bulgaria is ready to participate with the Wielingen class frigate Drazki and with humanitarian help. Readying the frigate would take a week and another four-five days would be needed for the vessel to arrive off Libya.
  •  Croatia: Croatian president Ivo Josipović said that if it becomes necessary Croatia will honour its NATO membership and participate in the actions in Libya. He also stressed that while Croatia is ready for military participation according to its capabilities, it will mostly endeavor to help on the humanitarian side.
  •  Germany:
  •  Jordan: will make a "logistic contribution", according to the British Prime Minister David Cameron
  •  Kuwait: will make a "logistic contribution", according to the British Prime Minister David Cameron
  •  Sweden: Swedish military readies eight JAS Gripen jets for the international air campaign, but the Swedish government would wait for a NATO request before deciding to commit their forces. In a recent poll some 65 percent of Swedes want their country to take part in the international air campaign to enforce a no-fly zone over Libya. Seven of Swedens eight parliament parties are in favor of contributing with Swedish military assets.
  •  United Arab Emirates: After initial reports by GCC, UAE, and US officials suggested the United Arab Emirates Air Force would support the coalition, Abu Dhabi said it would only participate in a humanitarian capacity, reportedly changing the mission profile in response to what Emirati leaders perceived as insufficient support from the US and Europe for GCC intervention in Bahrain. However, Reuters reported that the Greek airbase at Souda, Crete, has nonetheless received a request from the UAE to stand by for refueling of 12 Dassault Mirage 2000s and 12 F-16 Fighting Falcons en route to Sicily.

Action by international forces

The American destroyer USS Barry launches one of 110 Tomahawk missiles fired by the coalition
19 March 2011 - BBC News reported at 16:00 GMT that the French Air Force had sent 19 fighter planes over an area 100 km by 150 km (60 by 100 miles) over Benghazi to prevent any attacks on the rebel-controlled city. "Our air force will oppose any aggression by Colonel Gaddafi against the population of Benghazi", said French President Nicolas Sarkozy. BBC News reported at 16:59 GMT that at 16:45 GMT a French warplane had fired at and destroyed a Libyan military vehicle - this being confirmed by French defence ministry spokesman Laurent Teisseire.
According to Al-Jazeera, French aircraft destroyed four Libyan tanks in air strikes to the south-west of Benghazi. The French military claimed that their aircraft had also flown reconnaissance missions over "all Libyan territory". On the same day, British Prime Minister David Cameron confirmed that Royal Air Force jets were also in action and reports suggested that the U.S. Navy had fired the first cruise missile. CBS News' David Martin reported that three B-2 stealth bombers flew non-stop from the United States to drop 40 bombs on a major Libyan airfield. Martin further reported that U.S. fighter jets were searching for Libyan ground forces to attack.
The Pentagon and the British Ministry of Defence confirmed that, jointly, HMS Triumph and U.S. Navy ships (including USS Barry, pictured) and submarines fired more than 110 Tomahawk cruise missiles, supported with air attacks on military installations, both inland and on the coast.
Initially, the U.S. element of the operation was under command of United States Africa Command commanded by General Carter Ham. Tactical command of the operation was executed from USS Mount Whitney in the Mediterranean Sea under command of Admiral Sam Locklear, commander United States Naval Forces Europe. United States Secretary of Defense Robert Gates indicated that control of the operation would be transferred to French and British authorities, or NATO, within days.
Regime Forces attacked south of Benghazi
20 March 2011 - Several Storm Shadow missiles were launched by British jets. Nineteen U.S. warplanes also conducted strike operations in Libya. The warplanes included Marine Corps AV-8B Harriers, Air Force B-2 stealth bombers, and F-15 and F-16 fighter jets. A military convoy was destroyed near Benghazi in eastern Libya by multiple air strikes. Seventy military vehicles are known to have been destroyed along with multiple Libyan government ground troop casualties.
Four Danish F-16 fighters left Italy's Sigonella air base for a successful five-hour long "high risk mission", and three Italian Tornados ECR took off from the Trapani base, which suggested that they accompanied attack(s) against high risk targets such as air defence systems. A second immediate ceasefire was declared by the Libyan Army on 20 March, starting at 9pm.
21 March 2011 - SA-2, SA-3 and SA-5 air defence systems in Libya have been taken out. Only SA-6, hand held SA-7s and SA-8 mobile SAMs remained a possible threat to aircraft. A spokesman for the National Transitional Council said Gaddafi's forces were using human shields in defence of their military assets, bringing civilians to Misurata to surround their vehicles and troops to deter airstrikes. RAF Tornados aborted a planned airstrike due to information that a number of civilians were reported close to the intended target area. Among the buildings hit on late 20 March and early 21 March were parts of the Bab al-Azizia compound often used by Colonel Gaddafi. Further strikes on Tripoli and, according to Libyan government spokesmen, Sabha and Sirt, took place on late 21 March.
22 March 2011 - During a mission over Libya, a US F-15E crashed in rebel-held territory. It was reported that the aircraft, based at RAF Lakenheath in England, came down due to a mechanical fault, and that both crewmen had been rescued, but there are unconfirmed reports that six local villagers were injured by gunfire from the rescuing US forces. The American military has denied these reports. There are claims that the pilot called in a bomb strike by Harrier jump jets, possibly injuring the civilians. The U.S. announced that Qatari forces would join the operation by the weekend.
23 March 2011 - Coalition aircraft flew at least two bombing missions against loyalist forces near the besieged city of Misrata. In the early morning hours, Canadian Forces conducted bombing runs on a munitions depot near Misurata. NATO announced it is providing support to enforce the arms embargo.

Military losses

Crashed aircraft F-15E '91-0304/LN' in Ostrava, Czech Republic, half a year before. Her crew ejected and was rescued.

Reaction

Support

Support for the intervention comes from some Libyan organisations participating international states external bodies, and civic organisations.

Poland's Prime Minister Donald Tusk announced that Polish soldiers would not take military action in Libya although it voiced support for the UN Resolution and pledged to offer logistical support.

On 21 March the UK Parliament voted 557 to 13 in favour of the military involvement. A ComRes/ITN survey found that only one in three UK citizens agree with the decision to take military action in Libya although the Londoners polled in the survey "agreed they would like to see Gaddafi removed, but not through bombing" and most polled praised Prime Minister David Cameron. A poll by YouGov a few days later showed obverse results, with a plurality of the British public supporting the no-fly zone.

On 22 March, the President of Rwanda Paul Kagame told the BBC Africa Have Your Say programme: "It was the right thing to do. I fully support that. The fact that mistakes were made elsewhere in other instances doesn't make it right not to act in this particular case."

Mixed

The Secretary General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, on 20 March said that the Arab League had wanted "the protection of civilians and not the shelling of more civilians", but on 21 March reiterated his support for the operation.

Germany's foreign minister Guido Westerwelle was skeptical of the no-fly zone and on 15 March called the idea "potentially dangerous" although he recommended greater political pressure be put on the Libyan leader.

South African president Jacob Zuma on 21 March called "for an immediate ceasefire in Libya" and demanded that "Operations aimed at enforcing the no-fly zone and protecting civilians should be limited to just that." He also demanded that "The UN Security Council Resolution should be implemented in letter and spirit by all members of the UN Security Council."

Russia's foreign ministry said that it noted "with regret this armed action, taken in conjunction with the hastily passed U.N. Security Council resolution 1973". On 21 March, Prime Minister Vladimir Putin described the resolution as "defective and flawed" stating that "it allows everything" and "resembles medieval calls for crusades.", comments that were later called “unacceptable” by the Russian President Dmitry Medvedev who expressed support for resolution 1973. On the same day Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Lavrov commented after a meeting with the Secretary-General of the Arab League, Amr Moussa, that Moscow supported the Arab League resolution which had called for a no-fly zone over Libya.

NATO member Bulgaria's prime minister Boyko Borisov made an official statement supporting the resolution and called for Gaddafi to step down, but told TV7 that the intervention was an "adventure" oil grab by the western powers. President Georgi Purvanov criticised the intervention, and said that NATO should have had a unanimous support for it; foreign minister Nikolai Mladenov called the president's comments "absurd" and criticised him for airing his misgivings publicly.

The government of Serbia issued a statement saying that Serbia is deeply concerned about the situation in Libya, especially the risks to the lives of civilians. The statement said that Serbia calls for the respect of UN Security Council Resolution 1973 and international humanitarian law in order immediately to stop civilian deaths and further demolition of the country and that Serbia fully endorses Libya’s territorial integrity and wholeness. Foreign Minister Vuk Jeremić called on all three sides immediately to put an end to all military operations for the sake of protecting civilian lives. The ruling party representative MP in the National Assembly stated that while Serbia has a clear position to advocate for the respect of human rights it has a reason to believe that bombing a country is not the happiest way to reach the realization for human rights.

Criticism

Further information: Protests against the 2011 military intervention in Libya

Gaddafi called the air strikes terrorism "and vowed to fight to the death."

Algeria, Belarus, Cuba, Ecuador, Namibia, North Korea, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe have each condemned the military intervention in Libya.

Bolivian President Evo Morales, the 2006 recipient of the Al-Gaddafi International Prize for Human Rights, demanded that U.S. President Barack Obama be stripped of his Nobel Peace Prize for authorising the attack against Libya. Venezuelan President Hugo Chavez also condemned the attacks, calling it an attempt by the West and the U.S. to control the oil in Libya.

A committee of five member states of the African Union demanded an immediate end to the attacks on Libya; however, South African government officials have voiced concern that three of the five committee members are "financially reliant on Libyan leader Muammar Gaddafi" and questioned whether South Africa should even be part of this committee.

Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni on 21 March accused Western nations of double standards, a thirst for more oil and declared, that he is "totally allergic to foreign, political and military involvement in sovereign countries, especially the African countries." He called upon the Libyan opposition groups, if they are patriots, to fight their war by themselves.

The foreign ministry of the People's Republic of China said that it has "serious reservations" about a UN decision calling for a no-fly zone over Libya and regretted the military strike against Libya. Along with Russia, the PRC said the resolution's backers failed to explain adequately how the no-fly zone would work and what the rules of engagement would be.

The Ministry of External Affairs of India said, "India views with grave concern the continuing violence, strife and deteriorating humanitarian situation in Libya. It regrets the air strikes that are taking place. The measures adopted should mitigate — and not exacerbate — an already difficult situation for the people of the country". India called upon all parties to abjure use of or the threat of use of force and to resolve their differences through peaceful means and dialogue.

On 21 March, Iran supreme leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei accused the West to have "come after Libyan oil". He also stressed that "Iran utterly condemns the behaviour of the Libyan government against its people, the killings and pressure on people, and the bombing of its cities... but it (also) condemns the military action in Libya". Iran's Ambassador to the UN Mohammad Khazaei said on 17 March 2011: "Iran has showed that it is not interested in meddling in any country's internal affairs, nor wants military presence, and thus condemns any such actions."

Costs

On 22 March 2011, BBC News presented a breakdown of the likely costs to the UK of the mission. Journalist Francis Tusa, editor of Defence Analysis, estimated that flying a Tornado GR4 would cost about £35,000 an hour, so the cost of patrolling one sector of Libyan airspace would be £2M –£3M per day. Conventional airborne missiles would cost £800,000 each and Tomahawk cruise missiles £750,000 each. Professor Malcolm Charmers of the Royal United Services Institute similarly suggested that a single cruise missile would cost about £500,000, while a single Tornado sortie would cost about £30,000 in fuel alone. If a Tornado was downed the replacement cost would be upwards of £50m. By 22 March the US and UK had already fired more than 110 cruise missiles. UK Chancellor George Osborne had said that the MoD estimate of the operation cost was "tens rather than hundreds of millions".

Allocating costs to any such operation is not straightforward, however, since some costs are fixed. Weapons or even entire platforms, such as an aircraft, may be reaching end of their planned life and may be scheduled soon to be retired. If a Tornado is lost for example, it may well not be replaced.

See also

References

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Further reading

External links

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