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Goa is a small state on the western coast of India.Even though it is the smallest of all Indian states it has played a very noteworthy role in Indian history.

Paleolithic and Mesolithic era

Until 1993 ,the existence of Homo sapiens in Goa during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic period was highly debated.The discovery of rock art engravings on lateritic platforms and granite boulders from Usgalimal on the banks of west-flowing river Kushavti,has shed light on prehistory of Goa.The rock shelter at Usgalimal has enough space for 25 to 30 people.The perennial stream in the vicinity as a source of water which might have served the Stone age man for centuries. An anthropomorphic figure of Mother goddess and tectiforms resembling tree-like motifs have been found. This site was discovered by Dr P.P.Shirodkar.Exploration of several Mesolithic sites of the Mandovi-Zuari basin,other sites at Keri,Thane,Anjuna has led to finding of several scrapers,points,bores,cones etc.An hand axe has also been found at usgalimal.Further unifacial choppers were recovered on a flat-based pebble of quartzite from a pebble conglomerate at Shigaon on the river Dudhsagar. Shirodakar carried out a detailed study of the rock engravings and dated them to Upper paleolithic and Mesolithic phase ie. 8000-6000 BC. These historical discoveries have proved that well before the advent of agriculture,the region had been supporting a population of hunter-gatherers.

Neolithic period

The archeological evidences in th form of polished stone axe,suggesting the settlements of Neolithic man. These axes have been found in Goa Velha. It is believed that tribes of Austric origin like Kols,Mundaris,Kharvis may have settled Goa during this period,living on huting,fishing and primitive form of agriculture since 3500 BC. According to Goan historian Gauda and Kunbi and other such castes are modern descendants of ancient Mundari tribes.In his work he mentions several words of Mundari origin in the Konkani language.He also elaborates on the deities worshiped by the ancient tribes,their customs,methods of farming and its overall impact on modern day Goan society The Negroids were in an Neolithic stage of primitive culture, and they were food- gatherers rather.Traces of Negroid physical characteristics are found in parts of Goa, at least upto the middle of the first millennium. The Proto-Australoid tribe known as the Konkas, from whom is derived the name of the region, Kongvan or Konkan ,with the other mentioned tribes formed reportedly the earliest settlers in the territory.Agriculture was not fully developed at this stage,and was just shaping up.

Ancient history

In the 3rd century BCE, Gomanta formed part of the Maurya Empire. It was later ruled by the Satavahana dynasty. Eventually, it became a part of the Chalukya empire, who controlled it from 580 to 750 CE. Over the next few centuries it was ruled successively by the Silharas, the Kadambas and the Chalukyas of Kalyani. The Kadambas are credited with constructing the first settlement on the site of Old Goa in the middle of the 11th century.

Muslim rule

In 1350 CE, Goa was conquered by the Bahmani Sultanate. However in 1370, the Vijayanagar empire, a resurgent Hindu empire situated at modern day Hampi, reconquered the area. The Vijayanagar rulers held on to Goa for nearly 100 years, during which its harbours were important landing places for Arabian horses on their way to Hampi to strengthen the Vijaynagar cavalry. In 1469, however, Goa was reconquered, by the Bahmani Sultans of Gulbarga. When this dynasty broke up in 1492, Goa became a part of Adil Shah's Bijapur Sultanate, who made Goa Velha their second capital. The former Secretariat building in Panaji is a former Adil Shahi palace, later taken over by the Portuguese Viceroys as their official residence.

Portuguese conquest

In 1498, Vasco da Gama rounded the Cape of Good Hope and landed at Calicut. In 1510, Portuguese admiral Afonso de Albuquerque attacked Goa at the behest of the local cheftian Thimayya. After losing the city briefly to its former ruler, Ismail Adil Shah, the Muslim king of Bijapur, Albuquerque returned in force only three months later, on November 25, with a fleet fully renovated. In less than a day they took possession of Goa from Ismail Adil Shah and his Ottoman allies, who surrendered on 10 December. It is estimated that 6000 of the 9000 Muslim defenders of the city died, either on the fierce battle in the streets or drowned while trying to escape. He gained the support of the Hindu population, although frustrating the initial expectations Thimayya who aspired to gain the city. Afonso de Albuquerque rewarded him by appointing him chief "Aguazil" of the city, an administrator and representative of the Hindu and Muslim people, as a knowing interpreter of the local customs. He then made an agreement to lower yearly dues and taxes. In spite of constant attacks, Goa became the center of Portuguese India, with the conquest triggering the compliance of neighboring kingdoms: the Sultan of Gujarat and the Zamorin of Calicut sent embassies, offering alliances and local grants to fortify.

In Goa Albuquerque started the first Portuguese mint in the East, after complaints from merchants and Timoja about the scarcity of currency, taking it as an opportunity to announce the territorial conquest. The new coin, based on the existing local coins, showed a cross on one side and the design of an armillary sphere (or "espera"), King Manuel's badge, on the other. Gold, silver and bronze coins were issued, respectively gold cruzados or manueis, esperas and alf-esperas, and "leais". More mints would follow in Malacca in 1511.

Albuquerque and his successors left almost untouched the customs and constitutions of the thirty village communities on the island, only abolishing the rite of sati (widow-burning). A register of these customs (Foral de usos e costumes) was published in 1526; it is among the most valuable historical documents pertaining to Goan customs.

Goa was the base for Albuquerque's conquest of Malacca (1511) and Hormuz (1515). Albuquerque intended it to be a colony and a naval base, as distinct from the fortified factories established in certain Indian seaports. Goa was made capital of the Portuguese Vice-Kingdom in Asia, and the other Portuguese possessions in India, Malacca and other bases in Indonesia, East Timor, the Persian Gulf, Macau in China and trade bases in Japan were under the suzerainty of its Viceroy. By mid-16th century, the area under occupation had expanded to most of present-day limits.

Goa was granted the same civic privileges as Lisbon. Its senate or municipal chamber maintained direct communications with the king and paid a special representative to attend to its interests at court. In 1563 the governor even proposed to make Goa the seat of a parliament representing all parts of the Portuguese east but this was rejected by the king.

The Portuguese set up a base in Goa in their quest to control the spice trade. Merchandise from all parts of the East was displayed in its bazaar, and separate streets were set aside for the sale of different classes of goods–Bahrain pearls and coral, Chinese porcelain and silk, Portuguese velvet and piece-goods, drugs and spices from the Malay Archipelago.

In 1542, St. Francis Xavier mentions the architectural splendour of the city; but it reached the climax of its prosperity between 1575 and 1625. Travellers marvelled at Goa Dourada, or Golden Goa, and there was a Portuguese proverb, "He who has seen Goa need not see Lisbon."

In the main street slaves were sold by auction. The houses of the rich were surrounded by gardens and palm groves; they were built of stone and painted red or white. Instead of glass, their balconied windows had thin polished oyster-shells set in lattice-work. The social life of Goa's rulers befitted the headquarters of the viceregal court, the army and navy, and the church; luxury and ostentation becoming a byword before the end of the 16th century.

Almost all manual labour was done by slaves; common soldiers assumed high-sounding titles, and it was even customary for the poor noblemen who congregated together in boarding-houses to subscribe for a few silken cloaks, a silken umbrella and a common man-servant, so that each could take his turn to promenade the streets, fashionably attired and with a proper escort.

Around 1583, missionary activity in Cuncolim led first to small skirmishes and finally to the murder of all the missionaries. The Portuguese authorities called the 16 chieftains of each ward (vado) of the Cuncolim village to the Assolna fort, ostensibly to form a peace pact with the villagers. At the fort, the chieftains were slain, except for two who jumped from the fort into the Arabian sea and presumably swam to Karwar. The villagers were left without their traditional leaders and the Portuguese began confiscating the land of the locals and set up the Goa Inquisition. See main article: Cuncolim Revolt.

Decline

The appearance of the Dutch in Indian waters was followed by the gradual ruin of Goa. In 1603 and 1639 the city was blockaded by Dutch fleets, though never captured, and in 1635 it was ravaged by an epidemic. With the situation already volatile, Maratha troops entered parts of Bicholim in 1641 and began the minor Bicholim conflict, which ended in peace treaty between the Portuguese and Maratha Empire.

Trade was gradually monopolised by the Jesuits. Jean de Thévenot in 1666, Baldaeus in 1672, Fryer in 1675 describe its ever-increasing poverty and decay. After escaping from Agra Shivaji slowly started gaining the areas which he lost in Treaty of Purendar to Moghuls. In this he conquered most of the area adjoining to Old Conquestas of Goa. He captured Pernem, Bicholim, Sattari, Ponda, Sanguem, Quepem, Cancona. Sawantwadi Bonsale and Saudekar Rajas became his vassals. In 1683 Chatrapati Sambhaji, the son of Shivaji, tried to conquer entire Goa including the area in then Portuguese Goa. He almost ousted Portugues but to their surprise Mughal army prevented it from capture by the Marathas. In 1739 the whole territory of Bardez was attacked by the Marathas again in order to pressurize Protuguese Northern possession at Vasai (or Bassaiem), but could not be won because of the unexpected arrival of a new viceroy with a fleet.

After Third Battle of Panipat, Peshawa control over Maratha Empire got weakened and Portuguese then defeated Rajas of Sawantwadi and Raja of Sunda to conquer area stretched from Pernem till Cancona. This formed the Novas Conquestas and thus the present day Goa is formed.

In the same year the viceroy transferred his residence from the vicinity of Goa city to New Goa (in Portuguese Nova Goa), today's Panaji, which became the official seat of government in 1843, effecting a move which had been discussed as early as 1684. Old Goa city's population fell steeply during the 18th century as Europeans moved to the new city.

In 1757, King Joseph I of Portugal issued a decree penned by his prime minister, the Marquês de Pombal, granting the Portuguese citizenship and representation to all subjects in the Portuguese Indies. The enclaves of Goa, Damão, Diu, Dadra and Nagar Haveli became collectively known as the Estado da Índia Portuguesa, and had representation in the Portuguese parliament.

In 1787, there was a rebellion started by some priests against Portuguese rule. It became famous as the Conspiracy of the Pintos. Goa was peacefully occupied by the British between 1812-1815 in the context of the Anglo-Portuguese Alliance during the Napoleonic Wars.

After the independence of India

When India became independent in 1947, Goa remained under Portuguese control. The Indian government of Jawaharlal Nehru insisted that Goa, along with a few other minor Portuguese holdings, be turned over to India. Portugal, however, refused. France, which also had small enclaves in India (most notably Pondicherry, see French India), gave them up.

During the tenure of Marquês de Pombal, Act of 1761 was promulgated whereby all Portuguese subjects born in Portuguese India were considered Portuguese citizens, and as such, Goans had the right to elect their representatives to the Portuguese Parliament. The first election was held in Goa on 14 Jan 1822, electing 3 locals as members of Parliament.

In 1954, unarmed Indians took over the tiny land-locked enclaves of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli. This incident led the Portuguese to lodge a complaint against India in the International Court of Justice at The Hague. The final judgement on this case, given in 1960, held that the Portuguese had a right to the enclaves, but that India equally had a right to deny Portugal access to the enclaves over Indian territory.

In 1955 a group of unarmed civilians, satyagrahis demonstrated against Portugal. At least 22 of them were killed by Portuguese gunfire.

Later the same year, the satyagrahis took over a fort at Tiracol and hoisted the Indian flag. They were driven away by the Portuguese, with a number of casualties. On 1 September 1955, the Indian consulate in Goa was closed. In 1955 also Jawaharlal Nehru declared his government would not tolerate Portuguese presence in Goa. India then instituted a blockade against Goa, Damão and Diu, in an effort to force the Portuguese to leave.

On December 16, 1961, Indian troops crossed the border into Goa. Code named 'Operation Vijay', the move involved sustained land, sea, and air strikes for more than 36 hours; it resulted in the unconditional surrender of Portuguese forces on 19 December. A United Nations resolution condemning the invasion was proposed by the United States and the United Kingdom in the United Nations Security Council, but it was vetoed by the USSR.

Under Indian rule, Goan voters went to the polls in a referendum and elected to become an autonomous, federally administered territory. Goa was admitted to Indian statehood in 1987.

After annexation by India, the area was under military rule for five months, but the previous civil service was soon restored and the area became a federally administered territory. Goa celebrates its "Liberation Day" on 19 December every year, which is also a state holiday.

Notes

1. Kalyan Kumar Chakravarty, Robert G. Bednarik, Indirā Gāndhī Rāshṭrīya Mānava Saṅgrahālaya (1997). Indian rock art and its global context. Motilal Banarsidass Publ.,. pp. 228 pages (see page 34). ISBN 8120814649, 9788120814646. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
2. ^ Goa (India : State). Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Goa University (2001). Goa in the Indian sub-continent: seminar papers. Goa: Directorate of Archives and Archaeology, Govt. of Goa,. pp. 211 pages (see page 24).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
3. ^ C. R. Srinivasan, K. V. Ramesh, S. Subramonia Iyer (2004). Śrī puṣpāñjali: recent researches in prehistory, protohistory, art, architecture, numismatics, iconography, and epigraphy : Dr. C.R. Srinivasan commemoration volume, Volume 1. Bharatiya Kala Prakashan,. pp. 469 pages (see page4). ISBN 8180900568, 9788180900563. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Cite error: The named reference "axe" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
4. Shantaram Bhalchandra Deo, K. Paddayya, Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute (1985). Recent advances in Indian archaeology: proceedings of the seminar held in Poona in 1983. Deccan College Post-graduate and Research Institute, 1985. pp. 115 pages (see page 33).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
5. Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: district gazetteer, Volume 1 Gazetteer of India Gazetteer of the Union Territory Goa, Daman and Diu: District Gazetteer, Goa, Daman and Diu (India). Gazetteer Dept. Goa: Gazetteer Dept., Govt. of the Union Territory of Goa, Daman and Diu,. 1979. pp. Page 57.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
6. ^ Dhume, Anant Ramkrishna (, 1986). The cultural history of Goa from 10000 B.C.-1352 A.D. Ramesh Anant S. Dhume. pp. 355 pages (see pages 53.94, 95). {{cite book}}: Check date values in: |year= (help)CS1 maint: year (link)
7. Gomes, Olivinho (1987). Village Goa: a study of Goan social structure and change. S. Chand,. pp. 426 pages.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
8. Foundations of the Portuguese Empire, 1415-1580, p. 253, Diffie, Winius 253, Diffie, Winius
9. Kerr, Robert (1824)
10. Bhagamandala Seetharama Shastry, Charles J. Borges, "Goa-Kanara Portuguese relations, 1498-1763" p. 34-36
11. Teotonio R. De Souza, "Goa Through the Ages: An economic history" p.220-221, Issue 6 of Goa University publication series, ISBN 8170222265
12. "Commentarios do grande Afonso Dalboquerque", p.157
13. Sebastião Rodolfo Dalgado, Joseph M. Piel, Glossário luso-asiático, Parte 1, p.382
14. An abstract of it is given in R. S. Whiteway's Rise of the Portuguese Empire in India (London, 1898).
15. Thompson, Mark, Mistrust between states, Oxford University Press, London 1996
16. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4371 harvnb error: no target: as (help)
17. Asian recorder 1962, p. 4440 harvnb error: no target: as (help)
18. Goa and Portugal: history and development By Charles J. Borges, Hannes Stubbe
19. ^ Time

Further reading

• Andrada (undated). The Life of Dom John de Castro: The Fourth Vice Roy of India. Jacinto Freire de Andrada. Translated into English by Peter Wyche. (1664). Henry Herrington, New Exchange, London. Facsimilie edition (1994) AES Reprint, New Delhi. ISBN 81-206-0900-X.

See also

• Goa liberation movement

External links

• Xavier Centre of Historical Research
• The Portuguese Experience - The Case of Goa, Daman and Diu, An administrative history of Goa
• The Portuguese Rule in India
• Christianization of the Velhas Conquistas

• Goa
• History of Goa