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Clarence 13X
Clarence 13X, date unknown
Born	Clarence Jowars Smith (1928-02-22)February 22, 1928 Danville, Virginia
Died	June 13, 1969(1969-06-13) (aged 41) New York City

Clarence Edward Smith (February 22, 1928 – June 12, 1969) was an American religious leader who founded the Five Percent movement, a group that split from the Nation of Islam (NOI). He was born in Virginia, but moved to New York City as a young man, before serving in the United States Army during the Korean War. After returning to New York, he learned that his wife had joined the NOI and followed her, taking the name Clarence 13X. He served as a security officer, martial arts instructor, and student minister in the group, before leaving it in 1963. It is not known why he left; his departure has been variously attributed to doctrinal disagreements, conflict with leadership, or his personal misconduct. He disagreed with the NOI's teachings about the status of Wallace Fard Muhammad, whom they considered a divine messenger. Clarence 13X argued that Fard could not be divine because he was part white, contradicting the NOI's teaching that God is black. Clarence 13X also enjoyed gambling, which was condemned by the NOI.

After leaving the NOI, Clarence 13X formed a new group with other former members. He concluded that all black men were divine, and took the name Allah to symbolize this status. He rejected the belief in an invisible god, teaching that God is within each black man. In his view, women were "earths" that complemented and nurtured men; he believed that women should be submissive to men. He and a few assistants retained some NOI teachings, but pioneered novel interpretations of them. They devised numerology teachings about letters and numbers. Understanding the meaning of each letter and number was said to provide deep truths about God and the universe. Clarence 13X referred to his new movement as the Five Percenters, referencing a NOI teaching that only five percent of the population know and promote the truth. One way that he distinguished his group from the NOI was by rejecting dress codes or strict behavioral guidelines; members were given a great deal of personal freedom. He often gambled and, at times, allowed his followers to use illegal drugs. Clarence 13X was shot by an unknown assailant in 1964, but survived the attack. After an incident that year in which he and several of his followers vandalized stores and fought with police, he was arrested and placed in psychiatric care; doctors said that he suffered from paranoid schizophrenia. He was released from custody after a court ruling in 1966. Although he initially taught his followers to hate white people, he eventually began to cooperate with white city leaders. They gave him funding for a night school, and in return, he tried to prevent violence in Harlem. He also adopted more conservative positions, and accepted a white follower.

Clarence 13X was fatally shot in June 1969; the identity of his killer is unknown. The mayor of New York City and several other prominent leaders attended his ceremonies. Although the Five Percenters faltered in the immediate aftermath of his death, the movement eventually rebounded after new leadership emerged. The group took a non-hierarchical approach to leadership, and no single leader replaced him. He has been held in high regard by Five Percenters, and they have celebrated his birthday as a holiday. Some commentators have viewed him as a highly unconventional or unusual leader, but several New York City leaders have praised his activism and religious scholars have applauded his skill as a philosopher.

Early life and Nation of Islam

Clarence Edward Smith was born on February 22, 1928, and raised in Danville, Virginia. Virginia was then racially segregated, and he witnessed incidents of racism as a child, including a fight between his father and a white man. He had five brothers and one sister. In 1946, he moved to New York City with his mother, and settled in the Harlem neighborhood. He only attended two years of high school.

In 1949, Smith fathered a child, Clarence Jowers, with Willieen Jowers; at that time, he suffered from syphilis. Although he married a woman named Dora in 1950, he fathered another child, Otis Jowers, with Willieen in 1951. Smith joined the U.S. Army in the early 1950s, and was stationed in Korea from 1952 to 1954, where he served as an infantryman in the Korean War. After returning to the U.S., he lived in Harlem and served in the U.S. Army Reserves until 1960. He became skilled in Karate during his military service.

By 1961, Smith had joined the Nation of Islam (NOI), registered at Mosque No. 7, and changed his name to Clarence 13X. The year he converted is unknown; Dora had converted while he was away. Before his conversion, he often smoked marijuana and gambled, verboten activities within the NOI. He studied the group's teachings and quickly progressed within their structure, possibly owing to his military training. His responsibilities included teaching martial arts and serving on the Fruit of Islam security team. He was also recognized as a skilled speaker, and reached the rank of "student minister" at Mosque No. 7. He was nicknamed "pudding"; the name's origin is unknown. It may have been given as a childhood nickname or in recognition of his smooth verbal skills as an adult. By 1963, he had come to the attention of the FBI; informants recorded his presence at rallies led by Malcolm X.

The early 1960s were a turbulent period for the NOI; the unrest was due to conflicts between Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X, leaders of the group. Around that time, Clarence 13X became disillusioned with the organization, although the root of his qualms is not known; his departure has been variously attributed to doubts about the NOI's theology, violations of their moral code, objections to the luxurious lifestyles of the group's senior leadership, or that he was distrusted by Malcolm X. NOI members have offered contradictory accounts of the events that led to his departure, and whether it was voluntary. Dora elected to stay with the group, prompting the couple's separation. Before leaving the group, Clarence 13X had begun to doubt the NOI's teaching that Wallace Fard Muhammad was a divine messenger; he believed that Fard was of partial Caucasian descent, and that this contradicted the group's teaching that God is black. He concluded that divinity was found in all black men, rather than in a single person. Several times before he left the NOI, he was censured by leadership for these assertions. His friend John 37X elected to leave with him. Malcolm X also left the NOI in 1963, and remained on good terms with Clarence 13X, although he did not join Malcolm X's newly created group, Muslim Mosque, Inc.

Founding the Five Percenters

After leaving the NOI, Clarence 13X and John 37X continued to study the group's teachings. At that time, they sometimes smoked marijuana together, and John 37X regularly used heroin. They assumed new names, Clarence 13X took Allah, and John 37X, Abu Shahid. After reading an NOI book with 34 riddles, known as the "Lost-Found Lessons", Shahid concluded that numbers represent specific concepts, such as knowledge or wisdom. He referred to this system as "living mathematics". During its development, Shahid sold and used drugs, and was imprisoned on firearms charges. While Shahid was in prison, Clarence 13X taught a system of beliefs he referred to as "supreme wisdom", what he saw as the core of Islam, to groups of young men. He was assisted by his friend James Howard, with whom he developed a modified version of living mathematics, "supreme mathematics", and an accompanying doctrine about letters, the "supreme alphabet". The development of these systems, thought to be a "divine science" by adherents, may have been influenced by the teachings of Sufism. Like some schools of Sufism, they found esoteric meanings in the alphabet. Other possible influences on his teachings include Gnosticism, Kemetism, and Kabbalah.

Clarence 13X developed novel teachings, assigning backronyms to familiar words. He stated that the letters of the word "Allah" stood for "Arm, Leg, Leg, Arm, Head", signifying the human body. This was said to prove that humanity held a divine nature. He named parts of the New York area after locations in the Middle East that are significant to Islam: Harlem was referred to as Mecca, and Brooklyn, Medina. He soon drew other disaffected NOI members, including some who served the Fruit of Islam, to his burgeoning group, teaching the inherent greatness of those of African descent and the inferiority of Europeans and their descendants. They drew several followers from the NOI who were unwilling to choose between loyalty to Elijah Muhammad and Malcolm X; Clarence 13X incorporated aspects of the theology taught by the feuding leaders. In the group's early years, some Five Percenters attended NOI events. Clarence 13X's theology had much in common with the teachings of the NOI, although there are notable differences. The group teaches that Clarence 13X was an incarnation of God, and that black men are gods. Followers are thus encouraged to look within themselves in their search for god. Clarence 13X echoed negative statements made by Elijah Muhammad about white people, but did not enforce strict moral rules as did the NOI. One way that the group appealed to potential converts was by allowing many practices condemned by the NOI, including gambling, alcohol, and drug use. Clarence 13X told his followers to avoid addiction, but that drug use was not inherently wrong. He strictly forbade the consumption of pork, arguing that pigs were similar to animals that are not eaten, such as rats and dogs, and therefore should not be consumed. Owing to their belief that black men are gods, the group allowed its members to make choices about clothing and many aspects of diet and drug use.

Russell Simmons recalls that early members of the group would proselytize on street corners for hours, using entertaining and unconventional language. These lessons were taught in a form that resembled catechisms. Clarence 13X instructed his followers to memorize his teachings on the significance of numbers and letters. Once they did so, they were said to gain an understanding of profound truths. Rather than hold services in mosques, they gathered for monthly meetings known as parliaments; these events were often held outdoors. Attendees were given wide freedom to speak in a system that has been compared to Quaker meetings. Clarence 13X's assistants led classes about the group's teachings, strictly enforcing study habits.

The group initially became known as the "Suns of Almighty God Allah", or the "Blood Brothers". Clarence 13X assembled an inner circle of assistants, nine of whom are referred to by Five Percenters as the "First Born": they are said to embody attributes of their leader. The assistants were assigned to spread the group's teachings to younger people, and many of them took African names, including some from non-Islamic societies. Clarence 13X taught Afrocentrism to his disciples, and often wore a dashiki. Male Five Percenters members frequently wore tasseled kufis, and female members wore colorful African head wraps. A number of young converts were forced to leave their houses after their parents learned of their new faith; Clarence 13X hosted many of his followers at his home. Some Five Percents supported themselves via drug dealing and petty theft; others intentionally committed minor legal infractions, hoping to proselytize to others who had been arrested.

Clarence 13X was seen as a divine messenger, and his followers referred to him as "Father Allah". This elevated him to a higher position than Elijah Muhammad, who had deemed himself the "Messenger of Allah". After Malcolm X's death, the group became known as the "Five Percenters", or the "Five Percent Nation". The name was drawn from the NOI's claim to be the five percent of the black community who knew and promoted the truth; Clarence 13X considered his movement to be the five percent of the NOI which held to truth and integrity. The other 95 percent were said to be unaware of the truth or corrupt. He eventually stopped identifying himself as a Muslim, and spoke out against the reverence of W. D. Fard, casting him as a "mystery god". Clarence 13X rejected the idea of an invisible god, which he felt weakened people.

Clarence 13X had a patriarchal philosophy, and the Five Percenters were initially almost exclusively male. Although female converts were initially referred to as "nurses", Clarence 13X renamed them "Earths" in 1967. He taught that women were not gods, as they were created by man and did not possess creative power. In his view, women were "earths" who can nurture, but only men could make children. Women were said to resemble the earth in their ability to sustain life. Clarence 13X spoke in favor of fathers' arranging their daughters' marriages, and told women to embody submission by serving their husbands as Clarence 13X. He taught men not to be controlled by their wives, referring to those who were as "faggots". Sons were viewed as more important than daughters, because sons were seen as gods. Clarence 13X encouraged having many children; the Five Percenters discouraged the use of birth control. He allowed polygamy or serial monogamy, but discouraged legal marriage, although he refused to condemn followers who did.

Opposition

Leaders of the Nation of Islam were angry that Clarence 13X taught portions of their doctrine; although one of their captains repeatedly asked him to stop, he refused. Clarence 13X also experienced conflict within his family: Dora and his children did not revere him, and hostility quickly developed between core Five Percenters and his sons.

On December 9, 1964, Clarence 13X was shot twice in the torso while at a popular gathering place in the basement of a Harlem tenement. He was brought to Harlem Hospital, where he was treated and released. He later claimed to have died, but returned to his body a short time later. In a 2007 study of the Five Percent movement, American journalist Michael Muhammad Knight speculates that this caused his followers to see him as a Christ figure. The identity and motivation of the shooter are unknown; there has been speculation that the shooting was organized by law enforcement or rival Muslim groups, part of a robbery attempt, or retaliation for unpaid gambling debts. Clarence 13X's companions later reported that he instructed them not to seek revenge on the shooter, forswearing violence. While recuperating from his wounds, Clarence 13X sought to distinguish his movement from other Islamic movements, abandoning Arabic greetings for English.

The Five Percenters soon attracted attention from media and law enforcement. Local papers published sensational coverage, casting them as a violent hate group or a street gang. The New York Amsterdam News reported that Clarence 13X had threatened to kill white children if his group did not receive a government subsidy. In 1965, the FBI initiated an investigation, and may have provided sensationalized rumors to the press. That year, FBI director J. Edgar Hoover described Clarence 13X as a "Harlem rowdy", but feared that he would form ties with more dangerous groups. The FBI developed a detailed file on Clarence 13X; in 1967, Hoover described him as a potential threat to the President of the U.S, and sent a detailed folder about Clarence 13X to the United States Secret Service.

Arrest

After Malcolm X's death in 1964, Clarence 13X mourned his loss but did not attend his funeral. In May 1965, while visiting the site of Mosque No. 7, then closed, Clarence 13X and several of his companions were told to leave by a police officer. They left and began to vandalize nearby buildings, and blocked the street near the former headquarters of Muslim Mosque, Inc. More police arrived; they subdued Clarence 13X after an altercation and brought him into custody with several of his followers. After being arrested, he refused to identify himself, and was charged with assault and drug possession. At his arraignment, about 60 of his followers attended, but were removed from the court after shouting "Peace". Clarence 13X denied committing crimes, and announced his intent to defend himself in court. He told the judge that he was Allah, and that the city would face grave judgment if he were not released. The judge disregarded his prognostication, and he was held on $9,500 bail. The FBI followed the proceedings closely. At a court date in June, about 50 Five Percenters protested outside the court; afterwards, several were arrested on charges of making Molotov cocktails. In July, the court deemed Clarence 13X to have psychological problems and sent him to Bellevue Hospital Center. While in the hospital, he made a few disciples, and communicated with some followers through a hospital window. Under his instructions, Five Percenters resisted Louis Farrakhan attempts to convert them.

It took an unusually long time for Clarence 13X's psychiatric results to be processed and a hearing scheduled. Knight posits that the delay was due to FBI involvement, and argues that Clarence 13X was a political prisoner. In November 1965, Clarence 13X was ruled incompetent to stand trial and committed to the New York State Department of Mental Hygiene. He was held at the Matteawan State Hospital for the Criminally Insane. After he declared himself Allah and a "Master Gambler", the doctors concluded that he had Schizophrenic reaction, paranoid type with delusions of grandeur, and he faced indefinite commitment. Many Five Percenters and their converts, traveled to the hospital to meet with him, and he would teach them during their visits. He also proselytized to fellow inmates, converting one young white man.

While Clarence 13X was in prison, the Five Percenters continued to teach and proselytize their doctrines. He instructed his followers to adopt names different from those used in the Nation of Islam to differentiate their group. After attaining a certain degree of knowledge of the group's doctrines, members were allowed to adopt the surname "Allah", and sometimes "God" as a first name. This was due to Clarence 13X's teaching that black men were gods, and that each member should worship himself. His followers often took the name Allah, but would refrain from referring to themselves as such in his presence, in deference to his authority.

After a United States Supreme Court decision (Pate v. Robinson) in 1966, limits were place on the confinement of mentally ill criminals, causing many to be released. Clarence 13X was consequently released in March 1967.

Cooperation and conflict

In mid-1967, New York City mayor John Lindsay sought to develop closer ties with leaders of impoverished neighborhoods. Prompted in part by concerns voiced by the NYPD, the mayor dispatched one of his aides to meet with Clarence 13X. Belying his fearsome reputation, Clarence 13X had a congenial meeting with the aide, during which he requested more bus routes and school funding. Clarence 13X subsequently attended a meeting of black leaders at Gracie Mansion, the mayor's official residence. The city provided buses for Five Percenters to travel to a Long Island park, and with help from the Urban League, obtained an abandoned storefront for use as a school. It became known as the Allah School in Mecca, and aimed to prepare young people for college preparatory schools. Tensions soon formed between the Five Percenters and the school's overseers; Clarence 13X desired more control over the curriculum, and had difficulty finding qualified teachers. Police regularly visited the school, as a precautionary measure. The mayor's aide who reached out to Clarence 13X, Barry Gottehrer, later chronicled his friendship with Clarence 13X in The Mayor's Man. The book was well received by some Five Percenters, who republished portions of it after it went out of print. However, they have not reprinted the entire book, owing to a passage in which Gottehrer relates that Clarence 13X offered to allow him to sleep with his teenage daughter.

In February 1968, Lindsay estimated that there were about 500 to 700 Five Percenters. After the Assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. in April 1968, Lindsay sought to prevent potential rioting in Harlem. The mayor traveled to Harlem to walk through the town and express condolences; Clarence 13X and several Five Percenters were among those who accompanied him. Clarence 13X also instructed his followers to try to prevent violence and looting. He was later commended by the city for his efforts, but some black radicals accused him of protecting white interests over those of his own community. The city of New York subsequently agreed to help Clarence 13X publish a book of Five Percenter teachings and portions of the Quran. According to Willieen Jowers, he admitted that his previous teachings about racial hatred were wrong around this time. He later described himself as "neither anti-white nor pro-black", and saw some of his white contacts with the city as allies in the advancement of Five Percenter teachings. Clarence 13X's white convert was released from state custody, and joined his teacher in Harlem during the February 1969 nor'easter. He was accepted as a Five Percenter, as Clarence 13X maintained that "civilization", rather than race, was the focus of the group. However, Clarence 13X made possibly contradictory statements about whether white individuals could be reformed.

In 1968, Gloria Steinem published an article about Clarence 13X in New York. She blamed the Nation of Islam for the previous attempt to kill him, arguing that they were angered by his claim to be Allah, and thus above Elijah Muhammad. Clarence 13X also received international media attention. He had received coverage on Canadian television, and was interviewed by a Swedish sociologist.

Clarence 13X faced several challenges in 1967 and 1968. Some of his followers attempted to create break-away groups, proclaiming themselves prophets and starting their own movements. They generally retained aspects of Five Percenter doctrine but emphasized different teachings. Some secular black leaders disliked Clarence 13X, owing to his supportive comments about the mayor and neglect of revolutionary rhetoric. On one occasion, he was invited to address an audience of black Marxists, but spoke to them about numerology.

Contrary to his radical reputation, Clarence 13X endorsed some conservative positions in the late 1960s, including capital punishment, respect for the U.S. flag, and American involvement in Vietnam. He also allowed his supporters to attend Christmas celebrations. Knight notes that these shifts may have been intended to decrease suspicions of law enforcement. Clarence 13X was allowed to visit a juvenile detention center to speak to young Five Percenters, and won some concessions from the institution's leadership.

Death

By 1969, Clarence 13X had become very tired, and slept little. He feared that he would be killed, and instructed his followers to remain strong if he died. On the night of June 12, he spent time with several of his followers at their school. He left the school between two and three a.m., and gambled for an hour or two. He traveled to Dora's house to rest, but was ambushed by three assailants who fatally shot him while he was in the lobby of her apartment building. That morning, several people from the mayor's office visited his family, and the mayor later visited the Five Percenter school to express condolences.

The Daily News connected his death with the recent death of NOI activist Charles Kenyetta, casting them as part of a "Muslim War". The mayor believed that the NYPD told them this, and was angered by their claim. Louis Farrakhan denied culpability, saying that he had good relations with Clarence 13X. Most media sources gave Clarence 13X positive coverage in the wake of his death.

Clarence 13X was cremated, and his funeral was held the next Monday. It was attended by about 400 people, and was followed by a procession through Harlem. His death put the leadership of his movement in question—there was no clear successor. At the time of his death, his followers were primarily teenagers, and several of his top leaders subsequently struggled with drug addiction.

After Clarence 13X's death, NYPD investigators suspected that he was killed by members of an extortion ring, possibly connected to the Fair Play for Cuba Committee. In August 1969, an arrest was made in connection with his murder. The man denied involvement, and charges were soon dropped. Five Percenters have posited different suspects, including the CIA, the Nation of Islam, or a disgruntled follower.

Legacy and reception

Five Percenter membership plunged after Clarence 13X's death, but eventually rebounded after new leadership emerged and revitalized the group in 1970. After his death, the group was never dominated by a single leader. This may have been due to the teaching that all black men are gods, which rendered authoritarian leadership untenable.

Knight doubts that Clarence 13X set out to build a movement or a culture, but after his death, the movement expanded and gained converts across the United States. Five Percenters have celebrated Clarence 13X's birthday as a holiday, and minimized the descriptions of Clarence 13X's flaws in their accounts of his life. Numerous apocryphal stories from his life have circulated among the group; some accounts have claimed that he gambled only as a means to reach others with his teachings. Clarence 13X did not leave behind a record of his teachings, and the group had few formalized tenants at the time of his death. In the decades following his death, Five Percenter doctrine became more complicated.

Akbar Muhammad of the Nation of Islam described Clarence 13X as "confused", although relations between the Five Percenters and Nation of Islam leaders have improved over time. Clarence 13X's teachings may have influenced the doctrines of Dwight York, founder of the Nuwaubian Nation. York, however, saw Clarence 13X's teachings as an insufficient, incomplete path.

Lawyer Sidney Davidoff deemed Clarence 13X "a little bit snake-oil salesman and a little bit crazy, but no more unstable than anyone else preaching a gospel on the street corner." Davidoff saw Clarence 13X's black supremacist teachings as a way to instill confidence in young people. Knight states that Clarence 13X went from a "'Harlem rowdy' to legitimate community leader", and Lindsay deemed Clarence 13X as "the Al Sharpton of his day". Mattias Gardell of Uppsala University views Clarence 13X as a "gifted philosopher".

Notes

In Arabic, the name "Allah" means "God"; "Shahid" means "witness". (Knight 2007, p. 49)

References

^ Knight 2007, p. 32.
Haddad 1994, pp. 113–4.
^ Knight 2007, p. 263.
^ Knight 2007, p. 37.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 32–35.
^ Haddad 1994, p. 114.
^ Smydra 2003.
Haddad 1994, p. 113.
Miyakawa 2005, pp. 15–6.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 37–8.
Knight 2007, p. 35.
Williams & Dixie 2003, p. 287.
Knight 2007, p. 39.
Knight 2007, pp. 47–8.
Knight 2007, pp. 48–9.
Smydra 2003; Knight 2007, pp. 48–9.
Knight 2007, p. 52.
Knight 2007, pp. 52–4.
^ Gardell 1996, p. 225.
^ Smith 1999, p. 102.
Smydra 2003; Miyakawa 2010, p. 29.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 63–4.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 55–6.
^ Miyakawa 2010, p. 31.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 60–1.
Miyakawa 2005, p. 24.
Miyakawa 2005, pp. 31–2.
Williams & Dixie 2003, p. 286.
Knight 2007, p. 256.
Miyakawa 2005, pp. 32–3.
Miyakawa 2005, pp. 25–6.
Miyakawa 2010, p. 37.
Knight 2007, p. 4.
^ Evanzz 2011, p. 350.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 58–60.
^ Knight 2007, p. 112.
^ Miyakawa 2005, pp. 16–7.
Allen 1996, p. 187.
^ Gardell 1996, p. 224.
Knight 2007, p. 123.
Knight 2007, p. 268.
Knight 2007, pp. xii & 114.
Knight 2007, p. 209.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 209–10.
^ Knight 2007, p. 211.
Miyakawa 2010, p. 40.
Smith 1999, p. 103.
Knight 2007, p. 119.
Knight 2007, pp. 212–3.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 56–8.
Knight 2007, pp. 61–2.
Knight 2007, p. 75.
Knight 2007, p. 77.
Knight 2007, p. 78.
Knight 2007, pp. 66 & 69.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 69–73.
Palmer 2010, p. 157.
Knight 2007, pp. 77–81.
Knight 2007, pp. 82–3.
Knight 2007, p. 86.
Knight 2007, pp. 90–1.
Jackson 2005, p. 210.
Knight 2007, pp. 87–8.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 94–8.
Knight 2007, p. 99.
Miyakawa 2005, p. 19.
Knight 2007, p. 197.
Knight 2007, p. 212.
Knight 2007, p. 107.
Knight 2007, pp. 107–9.
Knight 2007, pp. 110–1.
Knight 2007, p. 240.
Knight 2007, p. 117.
^ Knight 2007, p. 122.
Knight 2007, pp. 104–5.
Knight 2007, pp. 105–6.
Knight 2007, pp. 113–4.
Knight 2007, pp. 115–6.
Knight 2007, pp. 117–8.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 120–1.
Evanzz 2011, p. 351.
^ Knight 2007, p. 124.
Knight 2007, p. 187.
Knight 2007, pp. 122–3.
Miyakawa 2005, p. 20.
Knight 2007, pp. 129 & 131.
Richardson 2003, p. 174.
von Zielbauer 2003.
^ Knight 2007, pp. 267–8.
Knight 2007, p. 262.
Knight 2007, p. 192.
Knight 2007, p. 195.
^ Knight 2007, p. 266.
Palmer 2010, p. 14.
Palmer 2010, p. 26.
Knight 2007, p. 111.
Knight 2007, p. 142.
Knight 2007, p. 267.

Bibliography

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Knight, Michael Muhammad (2007). The Five Percenters: Islam, Hip Hop and the Gods of New York. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 978-1-85168-513-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
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Williams, Juan; Dixie, Quinton Hosford (2003). This Far by Faith: Stories from the African American Religious Experience. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-06-093424-8.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

Newspapers

Smydra, David F. (December 21, 2003). "The Five-Percent rap". The Boston Globe. Retrieved May 22, 2012.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)
von Zielbauer, Paul (August 18, 2003). "Inmates Are Free to Practice Black Supremacist Religion in New York, a Judge Rules". The New York Times. Retrieved May 22, 2012.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link)

External links

FBI file on Clarence 13X

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