Misplaced Pages

Organic food

Article snapshot taken from Wikipedia with creative commons attribution-sharealike license. Give it a read and then ask your questions in the chat. We can research this topic together.

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by The Banner (talk | contribs) at 01:23, 4 December 2012 (Reverted to revision 526238493 by Montanabw: revert to sourced version. Please don't warn for an edit war that is not there.. (TW)). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Revision as of 01:23, 4 December 2012 by The Banner (talk | contribs) (Reverted to revision 526238493 by Montanabw: revert to sourced version. Please don't warn for an edit war that is not there.. (TW))(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)
Organic vegetables at a farmers' market in Argentina

Organic foods are foods that are produced using methods that do not involve modern synthetic inputs such as synthetic pesticides and chemical fertilizers. Organic foods are also not processed using irradiation, industrial solvents, or chemical food additives.

The weight of the available scientific evidence has not shown a consistent and significant difference between organic and more conventionally grown food in terms of safety, nutritional value, or taste.

For the vast majority of its history, agriculture can be described as having been organic; only during the 20th century was a large supply of new "chemicals" introduced to the food supply. The organic farming movement arose in the 1940s in response to the industrialization of agriculture known as the Green Revolution.

Organic food production is a heavily regulated industry, distinct from private gardening. Currently, the European Union, the United States, Canada, Japan and many other countries require producers to obtain special certification in order to market food as organic within their borders. In the context of these regulations, organic food is food produced in a way that complies with organic standards set by national governments and international organizations. In the United States, organic production is a system that is managed in accordance with the Organic Foods Production Act (OFPA) of 1990 and regulations in Title 7, Part 205 of the Code of Federal Regulations to respond to site-specific conditions by integrating cultural, biological, and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological balance, and conserve biodiversity. If livestock are involved, the livestock must be reared with regular access to pasture and without the routine use of antibiotics or growth hormones. In the United States, a food can be labelled as "organic" if it contains a minimum of 95% organic ingredients. In most countries, organic produce also do not contain genetically modified organisms. It has been suggested that the application of nanotechnology to food and agriculture is a further technology that needs to be excluded from certified organic food. The Soil Association (UK) has been the first organic certifier to implement a nano-exclusion.

Meaning and origin of the term

In 1939, Lord Northbourne coined the term organic farming in his book Look to the Land (1940), out of his conception of "the farm as organism," to describe a holistic, ecologically balanced approach to farming—in contrast to what he called chemical farming, which relied on "imported fertility" and "cannot be self-sufficient nor an organic whole." This is different from the scientific use of the term "organic," to refer to a class of molecules that contain carbon, especially those involved in the chemistry of life. This class of molecules includes everything likely to be considered edible, and include most pesticides and toxins too, therefore the term "organic" and, especially, the term "inorganic" (sometimes wrongly used as a contrast by the popular press) are both technically inaccurate and completely inappropriate when applied to farming, the production of food, and to foodstuffs themselves.

Identifying organic food

Mixed organic bean sprouts
Further information: Organic farming and on the production of organic food

Processed organic food usually contains only organic ingredients. If non-organic ingredients are present, at least a certain percentage of the food's total plant and animal ingredients must be organic (95% in the United States, Canada, and Australia) and any non-organically produced ingredients are subject to various agricultural requirements. Foods claiming to be organic must be free of artificial food additives, and are often processed with fewer artificial methods, materials and conditions, such as chemical ripening, food irradiation, and genetically modified ingredients. Pesticides are allowed as long as they are not synthetic.

Early consumers interested in organic food would look for non-chemically treated, non-use of unapproved pesticides, fresh or minimally processed food. They mostly had to buy directly from growers: "Know your farmer, know your food" was the motto. Personal definitions of what constituted "organic" were developed through firsthand experience: by talking to farmers, seeing farm conditions, and farming activities. Small farms grew vegetables (and raised livestock) using organic farming practices, with or without certification, and the individual consumer monitored. As demand for organic foods continued to increase, high volume sales through mass outlets such as supermarkets rapidly replaced the direct farmer connection. Today there is no limit to organic farm sizes and many large corporate farms currently have an organic division. However, for supermarket consumers, food production is not easily observable, and product labeling, like "certified organic", is relied on. Government regulations and third-party inspectors are looked to for assurance.

The USDA carries out routine inspections of farms that produce USDA Organic labeled foods. On April 20, 2010, the Department of Agriculture said that it would begin enforcing rules requiring the spot testing of organically grown foods for traces of pesticides, after an auditor exposed major gaps in federal oversight of the organic food industry.

Legal definition

The National Organic Program (run by the USDA) is in charge of the legal definition of organic in the United States and does organic certification.
Main article: Organic certification See also: List of countries with organic agriculture regulation

To be certified organic, products must be grown and manufactured in a manner that adheres to standards set by the country they are sold in:

Environmental impact

Several surveys and studies have attempted to examine and compare conventional and organic systems of farming. Organic farms do not consume or release synthetic pesticides into the environment although organic pesticides are as damaging to the environment as synthetic pesticides. Pesticides have the potential to harm soil, water and local terrestrial and aquatic wildlife. The general consensus across these surveys is that organic farming is less damaging for the following reasons:

  • Organic farms are better than conventional farms at sustaining diverse ecosystems, i.e., populations of plants and insects, as well as animals.
  • When calculated per unit area, organic farms use less energy and produce less waste, e.g., waste such as packaging materials for chemicals.

A 2003 investigation by the Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs in the UK found, similar to other reports, that organic farming "can produce positive environmental benefits", but that some of the benefits were decreased or lost when comparisons are made on "the basis of unit production rather than area".

The situation was shown dramatically in a comparison of a modern dairy farm in Wisconsin with one in New Zealand in which the animals grazed extensively. Using total farm emissions per kg milk produced as a parameter, the researchers showed that production of methane from belching was higher in the New Zealand farm, while carbon dioxide production was higher in the Wisconsin farm. Output of nitrous oxide, a gas with an estimated global warming potential 310 times that of carbon dioxide was also higher in the New Zealand farm. Methane from manure handling was similar in the two types of farm. The explanation for the finding relates to the different diets used on these farms, being based more completely on forage (and hence more fibrous) in New Zealand and containing less concentrate than in Wisconsin. Fibrous diets promote a higher proportion of acetate in the gut of ruminant animals, resulting in a higher production of methane that has to be released by belching. When cattle are given a diet containing some concentrates (such as corn and soybean meal) in addition to grass and silage, the pattern of ruminal fermentation alters from acetate to mainly propionate. As a result methane production is reduced. Capper et al. compared the environmental impact of US dairy production in 1944 and 2007. They calculated that the carbon “footprint” per billion kg of milk produced in 2007 was 37 percent that of equivalent milk production in 1944.

The environmental impact of pesticides as well as the impact to the health of farm workers are reasons given for purchasing organic food.

However, critics of organic farming methods believe that the increased land needed to farm organic food could potentially destroy the rainforests and wipe out many ecosystems.

Yield

One study found a 20% smaller yield from organic farms using 50% less fertilizer and 97% less pesticide. Studies comparing yields have had mixed results. Supporters claim that organically managed soil has a higher quality and higher water retention. This may help increase yields for organic farms in drought years.

One study from the Danish Environmental Protection Agency found that, area-for-area, organic farms of potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass produce as little as half the output of conventional farming. Michael Pollan, author of The Omnivore's Dilemma, responds to this by pointing out that the average yield of world agriculture is substantially lower than modern sustainable farming yields. Bringing average world yields up to modern organic levels could increase the world's food supply by 50%.

A 2007 study compiling research from 293 different comparisons into a single study to assess the overall efficiency of the two agricultural systems has concluded that

...organic methods could produce enough food on a global per capita basis to sustain the current human population, and potentially an even larger population, without increasing the agricultural land base. (from the abstract)

The researchers also found that while in developed countries, organic systems on average produce 92% of the yield produced by conventional agriculture, organic systems produce 80% more than conventional farms in developing countries, because the materials needed for organic farming are more accessible than synthetic farming materials to farmers in some poor countries. On the other hand, communities that lack sufficient manure to replenish soils would struggle with organic farming, and the soil would degrade rapidly.

Energy efficiency

A study of the sustainability of apple production systems showed that in comparing a conventional farming system to an organic method of farming, the organic system in this case is more energy efficient. A more comprehensive study compared efficiency of agriculture for products such as grain, roughage crops, and animal husbandry. While the study did not investigate specific additional requirements of arable land or numbers of farm laborers to produce total yields for organic farming vs. conventional farming, leaving open the question of overall capacity of organic farming to meet current and future agricultural needs, it concluded that organic farming had a higher yield per unit of energy over multiple crops and for livestock. However, conventional farming had higher total yield. Conversely, another study noted that organic wheat and corn production was more energy efficient than conventional methods while organic apple and potato production was less energy efficient than conventional methods. A long-term study, spanning two decades, noted that crop yields were 20% lower in organic systems while fertilizer plus energy input was 34% to 53% lower. However, pesticide input was reduced by 97% in organic farm systems.

Health and safety

Consumer safety

Reviews of the available body of scientific literature have not found that organic food is any safer or healthier than conventional foods. There continues to be widespread public belief that organic food is significantly safer for consumption than food grown conventionally, though reviewers suggest this belief is based upon anecdotal evidence and testimonials. As a result, there is increased demand for organic food despite higher prices. Firm conclusions about the relative safety of organic foods have been hampered by the difficulty in proper study design and relatively small number of studies directly comparing organic food to conventional food.

Claims of improved safety of organic food has largely focused on pesticide residues. While studies have shown organically grown fruits and vegetables have significantly lower pesticide residue levels, the significance of this finding on actual health risk reduction is hotly debated. Both conventional foods and organic foods generally have pesticide levels well below government established guidelines for what is considered safe. Claims of increased risk related to pesticide residue and rates of infertility or lower sperm counts have not been supported by the evidence in medical literature, which suggests that the risks from microbiological sources or natural toxins are likely to be much more significant than short term or chronic risks from pesticide residues.

However, a 1989 peer-reviewed study sponsored by the Natural Resources Defense Council identified an association between consumption of pesticide residues from conventionally grown food and cancer risk. A 2012 risk assessment estimated that cancer benchmark levels in preschool children were exceeded for several toxic substances and recommended consumption of organic foods as one strategy for reducing risk. Proponents of organic food express concern that children are being exposed to hazardous levels of pesticides in fruits and vegetables. In 1989, NRDC estimated that 5,500 to 6,200 of the current population of American preschoolers may eventually get cancer "solely as a result of their exposure before six years of age to eight pesticides or metabolites commonly found in fruits and vegetables." This estimate was based on conservative risk assessment procedures, which indicate that greater than 50% of an individual's lifetime risk of cancer from exposure to carcinogenic pesticides used on fruit takes place during the first six years of life. In a study conducted on children and adults in California, consumption of conventionally grown foods was associated with excessive cancer benchmark levels for all children for DDE, which was primarily sourced from dairy, potatoes, meat, freshwater fish, and pizza.

Some focus has been placed on the amount of nitrogen content in certain vegetables, especially green leafy vegetables and tubers when grown organically as compared to conventionally. While these vegetables, when grown organically, have been found to have lower nitrogen content, there is no consensus as to whether consumption of lower levels of nitrogen translates to improved health risk. When evaluating environmental toxins such as heavy metals, the USDA noted that organically raised chicken may have lower arsenic levels, while literature reviews found no significant evidence that levels of arsenic, cadmium or other heavy metals differed significantly between organic and conventional food products.

In looking at possible increased risk to safety from organic food consumption, reviews have found that although there may be increased risk from microbiological contamination due to increased manure use as fertilizer from organisms like E. coli O157:H7 during organic produce production, there is little evidence of actual incidence of outbreaks which can be positively blamed on organic food production. One outbreak of E. coli in Germany was blamed on organic farming of bean sprouts. Other possible sources of increased safety risk from organic food consumption like use of biological pesticides or the theoretical risk from mycotoxins from fungi grown on products due to the lack of effective organic compliant fungicides have likewise not been confirmed by rigorous studies in the scientific literature.

The American Cancer Society (ACS) has noted that interest in organic food is derived from perceived risk of cancer from additives not found in organic foods. The ACS has stated their official position that "whether organic foods carry a lower risk of cancer because they are less likely to be contaminated by compounds that might cause cancer is largely unknown" and "vegetables, fruits, and whole grains should form the central part of a person's diet, regardless of whether they are grown conventionally or organically".

Nutritional value and taste

According to the UK's Food Standards Agency, "Consumers may choose to buy organic fruit, vegetables and meat because they believe them to be more nutritious than other food. However, the balance of current scientific evidence does not support this view." A 12-month systematic review commissioned by the FSA in 2009 and conducted at the London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine based on 50 years' worth of collected evidence concluded that "there is no good evidence that consumption of organic food is beneficial to health in relation to nutrient content." Other studies have found no proof that organic food offers greater nutritional values, more consumer safety or any distinguishable difference in taste. A review of nutrition claims showed that organic food proponents are unreliable information sources which harm consumers, and that consumers are wasting their money if they buy organic food believing that it contains better nutrients. Minor differences in ascorbic acid, protein concentration and several micronutrients have been identified between organic and conventional foods, but it doesn't appear that these have any impact on human health.

A literature review published by the University of Bologna and the Research Institute of Organic Agriculture in Switzerland in 2009 concluded that in the scientific literature examined “there is broad agreement on two points: there is no proof that organic food is more nutritious or safer, and most studies that have compared the taste and organoleptic quality of organic and conventional foods report no consistent or significant differences between organic and conventional produce. Therefore, claiming that all organic food tastes different from all conventional food would not be correct. However, among the well-designed studies with respect to fruits and vegetables that have found differences, the vast majority favour organic produce.”

As with vegetable produce, there is evidence that some organic fruit is drier than conventionally grown fruit. Unless this factor is taken into account a higher content of a nutrient might be explained by a higher dry-matter (lower moisture) content. A slightly drier fruit may also have a more intense flavor due to the higher concentration of nutrients, and as a result may be preferred by the consumer. There is evidence that some organically grown fruits has a higher resistance to deterioration and better keeping quality, attributed to a lower moisture content.

Although it is commonly claimed that organically grown food tastes better than conventionally grown food, reviews of the literature that looked at the sensory qualities of the two have not found convincing evidence that there are any significant differences.

Psychological effects such as the “halo” effect which are related to the choice and consumption of organic food and which may be akin to religious experiences in some people are in addition important motivating factors in the purchase of organic food. An example of the halo effect was demonstrated by Schuldt and Schwarz. Their results showed that university students inferred that organic cookies were lower in calories and could be eaten more often than conventional cookies. This effect was observed even when the nutrition label conveyed an identical calorie content. The effect was more pronounced among participants who were strong supporters of organic production and had strong feelings about environmental issues. The perception that organic food is low-calorie food or health food appears to be quite common.

Economics

Demand for organic foods is primarily concern for personal health and concern for the environment. Organic products typically cost 10 to 40% more than similar conventionally produced products. According to the USDA, Americans, on average, spent $1,347 on groceries in 2004; thus switching entirely to organics would raise their cost of groceries by about $135 to $539 per year ($11 to $45 per month) assuming that prices remained stable with increased demand. Processed organic foods vary in price when compared to their conventional counterparts.

While organic food accounts for 1–2% of total food sales worldwide, the organic food market is growing rapidly, far ahead of the rest of the food industry, in both developed and developing nations.

  • World organic food sales jumped from US $23 billion in 2002 to $52 billion in 2008.
  • The world organic market has been growing by 20% a year since the early 1990s, with future growth estimates ranging from 10%–50% annually depending on the country.

North America

United States
  • Organic food is the fastest growing sector of the American food marketplace.
  • Organic food sales have grown by 17 to 20 percent a year for the past few years while sales of conventional food have grown at only about 2 to 3 percent a year.
  • In 2003 organic products were available in nearly 20,000 natural food stores and 73% of conventional grocery stores.
  • Organic products accounted for 3.7% of total food and beverage sales, and 11.4% of all fruit and vegetable sales in the year 2009.
  • Two thirds of organic milk and cream and half of organic cheese and yogurt are sold through conventional supermarkets.
  • As of 2012, most independent organic food processors in the USA had been acquired by multinational firms.
Canada
  • Organic food sales surpassed $1 billion in 2006, accounting for 0.9% of food sales in Canada.
  • Organic food sales by grocery stores were 28% higher in 2006 than in 2005.
  • British Columbians account for 13% of the Canadian population, but purchased 26% of the organic food sold in Canada in 2006.

Europe

In the European Union (EU25) 3.9% of the total utilized agricultural area was used for organic production in 2005. The countries with the highest proportion of organic land were Austria (11%) and Italy (8.4), followed by the Czech Republic and Greece (both 7.2%). The lowest figures were shown for Malta (0.1%), Poland (0.6%) and Ireland (0.8%). In 2009, the proportion of organic land in the EU grew to 4.7%. The countries with highest share of agricultural land were Liechtenstein (26.9%), Austria (18.5%) and Sweden (12.6%).

Austria
  • 16% of all farmers produced organically in 2010. By the same year the proportion of organic land increased to 20%.
  • In 2011, 7.4% of all food products sold in Austrian supermarkets (including discount stores) were organic. In 2007, 8,000 different organic products were available.
Italy
  • Since 2000, the use of some organic food is compulsory in Italian schools and hospitals. A 2002 law of the Emilia Romagna region implemented in 2005, explicitly requires that the food in nursery and primary schools (from 3 months to 10 years) must be 100% organic, and the food in meals at schools, universities and hospitals must be at least 35% organic.
Poland
  • In 2005 168,000 ha of land were under organic management. 7 percent of Polish consumers buy food that was produced according to the EU-Eco-regulation. The value of the organic market is estimated at 50 million Euros (2006).
Romania
  • 100,000 ha of land were under organic management in 2010, representing 1% of the total utilized agricultural area. 70%-80% of the local organic production, amounting to 100 million Euros in 2010, is exported. The organic products market grew to 50 million Euros in 2010.
UK
  • Organic food sales increased from just over £100 million in 1993/94 to £1.21 billion in 2004 (an 11% increase on 2003). In 2010, the UK sales of organic products fell 5.9% to £1.73 billion. 86% of households buy organic products, the most popular categories being dairies (30.5% of sales) and fresh fruits and vegetables (23.2% of sales). 4.2% of UK farmland is organically managed.

Latin America

Cuba
  • After the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, agricultural inputs that had previously been purchased from Eastern bloc countries were no longer available in Cuba, and many Cuban farms converted to organic methods out of necessity. Consequently, organic agriculture is a mainstream practice in Cuba, while it remains an alternative practice in most other countries. Although some products called organic in Cuba would not satisfy certification requirements in other countries (crops may be genetically modified, for example), Cuba exports organic citrus and citrus juices to EU markets that meet EU organic standards. Cuba's forced conversion to organic methods may position the country to be a global supplier of organic products.

See also

References

  1. The Business of Food: Encyclopedia of the Food and Drink Industries. ABC-CLIO. 2007. p. 288. ISBN 978-0-313-33725-3. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |editors= ignored (|editor= suggested) (help)
  2. ^ Magkos F, Arvaniti F, Zampelas A (2006). "Organic food: buying more safety or just peace of mind? A critical review of the literature" (PDF). Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 46 (1): 23–56. doi:10.1080/10408690490911846. PMID 16403682.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  3. ^ Bourn D, Prescott J (2002). "A comparison of the nutritional value, sensory qualities, and food safety of organically and conventionally produced foods". Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 42 (1): 1–34. doi:10.1080/10408690290825439. PMID 11833635. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  4. ^ Blair, Robert. (2012). Organic Production and Food Quality: A Down to Earth Analysis. Wiley-Blackwell, Oxford, UK. ISBN 978-0-8138-1217-5
  5. ^ Smith-Spangler, C (September 4, 2012). "Are organic foods safer or healthier than conventional alternatives?: a systematic review". Annals of Internal Medicine. 157 (5): 348–366. PMID 22944875. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  6. Cite error: The named reference FSA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  7. ^ Williams, Christine M. (2002). "Nutritional quality of organic food: shades of grey or shades of green?" (PDF). Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 61 (1): 19–24. doi:10.1079/PNS2001126. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  8. History of food, p. 3
  9. Drinkwater, Laurie E. (2009). "Ecological Knowledge: Foundation for Sustainable Organic Agriculture". In Francis, Charles (ed.). Organic farming: the ecological system. ASA-CSSA-SSSA. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-89118-173-6.
  10. "Agricultural Marketing Service - National Organic Program". Ams.usda.gov. 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  11. "Access to Pasture Rule for Organic Livestock". Ams.usda.gov. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  12. "Agricultural Marketing Service - Consumers". Ams.usda.gov. 2008-10-31. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  13. ^ Paull, J. & Lyons, K. (2008) , Nanotechnology: The Next Challenge for Organics, Journal of Organic Systems, 3(1) 3–22
  14. John, Paull (2006). "The Farm as Organism: The Foundational Idea of Organic Agriculture" (PDF). Elementals: Journal of Bio-Dynamics Tasmania. 80: 14–18.
  15. "Labeling: Preamble". Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  16. Nestle, Marion. 2006. What to Eat. NY: North Point Press. ISBN 978-0-86547-738-4
  17. Neuman, William (March 19, 2010). "U.S. Plans Spot Tests of Organic Products". The New York Times. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  19. "Steps to Certification - Within Australia". NASAA. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  20. "Organic Products Regulations". Canada Gazette, Government of Canada. 2December 21, 2006. Retrieved 2012-10-02. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  21. "KRAV". Krav.se. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
  22. "Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs". DEFRA. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
  23. "Debio Organic certification". Debio.no. Retrieved 2012-10-02.
  24. NPOP, (National Program for Organic Production)
  25. JAS Standards
  26. Stolze, M.; Piorr, A.; Häring, A.M. and Dabbert, S. (2000) Environmental impacts of organic farming in Europe. Organic Farming in Europe: Economics and Policy Vol. 6. Universität Hohenheim, Stuttgart-Hohenheim.
  27. Hansen, Birgitt (2001). "Approaches to assess the environmental impact of organic farming with particular regard to Denmark". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 83 (1–2): 11–26. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00257-7. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  28. Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. "Assessment of the environmental impacts of organic farming" (PDF). Retrieved 2009-09-29.
  29. Johnson, K.A. and Johnson, D.E. (1995). Methane emissions from cattle. Journal of Animal Science 73: 2483-2492.
  30. Capper, J.L., Cady, R.A. and Bauman, D.E. (2009). The environmental impact of dairy production: 1944 compared with 2007. Journal of Animal Science 87: 2160-2167.
  31. Goldberg, Bob. "The Hypocrisy of Organic Farmers". AgBioWorld. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  32. Leonard, Andrew. "Save the rain forest -- boycott organic?". How The World Works. Retrieved 2007-10-10.
  33. Mader; Fliessbach, A; Dubois, D; Gunst, L; Fried, P; Niggli, U; et al. (2002). "Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming". Science. 296 (5573): 1694–1697. doi:10.1126/science.1071148. PMID 12040197. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  34. Welsh, Rick (1999). "Economics of Organic Grain and Soybean Production in the Midwestern United States" (PDF). Henry A. Wallace Institute for Alternative Agriculture.
  35. Johnston, A. E. (1986). "Soil organic-matter, effects on soils and crops". Soil Use Management. 2 (3): 97–105. doi:10.1111/j.1475-2743.1986.tb00690.x.
  36. The Bichel Committee. 1999. Report from the main committee. Danish Environmental Protection Agency. Conclusions and recommendations of the Committee: 8.7.1 Total phase-out. "A total abolition of pesticide use would result in an average drop in farming yields of between 10% and 25%, at the farm level; the smallest losses would occur in cattle farming. On farms that have a large proportion of special crops, such as potatoes, sugar beet and seed grass, the production losses in terms of quantity would be closer to 50%. These crops would probably be ousted by other crops."
  37. Pollan, Michael (2008-10-12). "Chief farmer". New York Times. Retrieved 2008-11-15.
  38. Perfecto et al., in Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems (2007), 22: 86–108 Cambridge University Press: cited in New Scientist 13:46 12 July 2007
  39. "Stuck in the mud". The Economist. 2008-08-11.
  40. Reganold; Glover, JD; Andrews, PK; Hinman, HR; et al. (2001). "Sustainability of three apple production systems". Nature. 410 (6831): 926–930. doi:10.1038/35073574. PMID 11309616. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  41. Dalgaard; et al. (2001). "A model for fossil energy use in Danish agriculture used to compare organic and conventional farming". Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment. 87: 51–65. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  42. Pimental; et al. (1983). "Energy efficiency of farming systems: Organic and conventional agriculture". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 9: 359–372. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  43. Maeder; et al. (2002). "Soil Fertility and Biodiversity in Organic Farming". Science. 296: 1694–1697. doi:10.1126/science.1071148. PMID 12040197. {{cite journal}}: Explicit use of et al. in: |author= (help)
  44. ^ Canavari, M., Asioli, D., Bendini, A., Cantore, N., Gallina Toschi, T., Spiller, A., Obermowe, T., Buchecker, K. and Lohmann, M. (2009). Summary report on sensory-related socio-economic and sensory science literature about organic food products (2009).
  45. ^ Sewell B, Whyatt R (1989). "Intolerable Risk: Pesticides in Our Children's Food" (PDF). {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help); Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)
  46. ^ Vogt R, Bennett D, Cassady D, Frost J, Ritz B, Hertz-Picciotto I (2012). "Cancer and non-cancer health effects from food contaminant exposures for children and adults in California: a risk assessment". Environmental Health. 11 (1). PMID 23140444. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  47. Cite error: The named reference USDA was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  48. "Analysis: E.coli outbreak poses questions for organic farming". Reuters. 06 June 2011. Retrieved 22 June 2012. {{cite news}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  49. "Tracing seeds, in particular fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) seeds, in relation to the Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) O104:H4 2011 Outbreaks in Germany and France" (PDF). European Food Safety Authority. Retrieved 23 July 2012.
  50. "Food additives, safety, and organic foods". American Cancer Society. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  51. "It's Official: Organic Really is Better". Times Online. November 17, 2007. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  52. Goodchild, Sophie (2009-07-). "Organic food 'no healthier' blow". London Evening Standard. Retrieved 2009-07-29. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  53. Canadian Produce Marketing Association (CPMA). Organically Grown Produce: Does organic produce taste better? & Is organic produce more nutritious?
  54. Sir John Krebs. June 5, 2003. Is organic food better for you? Speech given by the then-chair of the Food Standards Agency (UK), Sir John Krebs, to the Cheltenham Science Fair on June 5, 2005.
  55. Rosen, Joseph D. (May 2010). "A Review of the Nutrition Claims Made by Proponents of Organic Food". Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety. 9 (3): 270–277. doi:10.1111/j.1541-4337.2010.00108.x.
  56. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1080/09637480120092071, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1080/09637480120092071 instead.
  57. Attention: This template ({{cite doi}}) is deprecated. To cite the publication identified by doi:10.1016/j.tifs.2005.02.001, please use {{cite journal}} (if it was published in a bona fide academic journal, otherwise {{cite report}} with |doi=10.1016/j.tifs.2005.02.001 instead.
  58. Schuldt, J.P. and Schwarz, N. (2010). The “organic” path to obesity? Organic claims influence calorie judgments and exercise recommendations. Judgment and Decision Making 5: 144–150.
  59. Conflicting demands of agricultural production and environmental conservation: consumers' perception of the quality and safety of food (2004). Filho, Walter Leal (ed.). Ecological agriculture and rural development in Central and Eastern European countries. IOS Press. pp. 147–148. ISBN 978-1-58603-439-9.
  60. Winter, Carl K. (November 2006). "Organic Foods". Journal of Food Science. 71 (9): R117–R124. doi:10.1111/j.1750-3841.2006.00196.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  61. "Food Spending in American Households, 2003-04". Ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  62. "The Global Market for Organic Food & Drink". Organic Monitor. 2002. Retrieved 2006-06-20.
  63. "Food: Global Industry Guide". Datamonitor. 2009. Retrieved 2008-08-28.
  64. "Jobs and the Economy — President Obama's Record — Barack Obama" (PDF). Barackobama.com. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
  65. Hansen, Nanette (2004). "Organic food sales see healthy growth". MSNBC. Retrieved 2006-06-20.
  66. Warner, Melanie. "What Is Organic? Powerful Players Want a Say". New York Times: Nov. 1, 2005.
  67. Greene, Catherine; Dimitri, Carolyn (2003). "Organic Agriculture: Gaining Ground". USDA Economic Research Service. Retrieved 2006-06-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  68. "Industry Statistics and Projected Growth". Organic Trade Association. June 2010. Retrieved 2011-05-28.
  69. Dryer, Jerry (2003). "Market Trends: Organic Lessons". Prepared Foods. Retrieved 2006-06-20.
  70. Strom, Stephanie (July 7, 2012). "Has 'Organic' Been Oversized?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 8, 2012.
  71. ^ Macey, Anne (2007). "Retail Sales of Certified Organic Food Products in Canada in 2006" (PDF). Organic Agriculture Center of Canada. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
  72. Macey, Anne (2007). "Retail Sales of Certified Organic Food Products in Canada in 2006. Organic food is not all organic. only food labeled with a 100% organic sticker are pesticide-free/" (PDF). Organic Agriculture Center of Canada. Retrieved 2008-04-09.
  73. "Organic Farming in the European Union" (PDF). European Commission. p. 30. Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  74. European Commission – Eurostat. "Eurostat press release 80/2007" (PDF). p. 1. Retrieved 2007-10-07.
  75. FiBL,OTA. "Organic Market Growth - Facts and Figures". Retrieved 2012-01-18.
  76. Bauernzeitung (RollAMA survey). "Bio hat Zukunft, aber auch viele Probleme". Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  77. Typisch.at (RollAMA survey). "Bio-Aufwärtstrend in Österreich". Retrieved 2012-01-19.
  78. BIO AUSTRIA. "Wirtschaftlicher Durchbruch für Bio-Fachhandel im Jubiläumsjahr". Retrieved 2007-11-13.
  79. Organic Consumers Association. "Italian Law Calls for All Organic Foods in Nation's Schools". Retrieved 2007-11-13.
  80. SixtyTwo International Consultants. "The organic food market in Poland: Ready for take-off". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  81. Cult Market Research. "Piata de produse bio din Romania in cifre". Retrieved 2012-01-18.
  82. Organic Centre Wales. "Organic statistics – the shape of organic food and farming". Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  83. Soil Association. "Organic market report 2011". Retrieved 2012-01-18.
  84. Auld, Alison. "Farming with Fidel". Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  85. Center for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology. "Cuban GMO Vision" (PDF). Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  86. Centro de Ingeniería Genética y Biotecnología de Cuba. "DirecciÓn de Investigaciones Agropecuarias". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. Retrieved 2007-10-08.
  87. Office of Global Analysis, FAS, USDA. "Cuba's Food & Agriculture Situation Report" (PDF). Retrieved 2008-09-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)

Further reading

External links

Categories: