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Talk:Circumcision and HIV

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HIV/AIDS topics

First of all, beautefully done, Jakew. To me, what you just did is magic! I added a See Also section. I hope this time there are no issues with it? Anyway, there is a HIV/AIDS topics template(I think?) with many links to HIV/AIDS related articles. I think this article belongs with them but am not sure, and have no clue how to make it happen in any case. --Nakerlund (talk) 17:38, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

Thank you, Nakerlund. The template is {{AIDS}}. It would be straightforward to include it, but I'm not sure whether this article should be included in the template. I've requested input from other editors at Talk:HIV#Input requested. Jakew (talk) 18:48, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

FGC/Stallings

This edit, which introduces a conference presentation by Stallings, is problematic, for several reasons.

First, every source in this article discusses the relationship between penile circumcision (that is, the removal of the penile foreskin) and HIV. Stallings' paper, in contrast, is about female genital cutting. Thus, there is no logical reason for including this material here.

Second, the edit appears to be very poorly thought out. For example, the material was placed in the section entitled "Langerhans cells and HIV transmission", in spite of the material having no obvious connection with that subject.

Third, the edit is misleading. For example, it begins "Stallings (2005) cited 3 prior studies which showed a correlation between female circumcision and a lower risk of HIV...". The words "showed a correlation" imply that a statistically significant correlation was observed. Slide 11 of Stallings' presentation, however, shows the opposite to be true: the 95% confidence intervals for the odds ratios for all three studies include 1.0, so in fact it would be more accurate to say "...showing no correlation...". (To be precise, one shows a non-significant association between FGC and lower risk of HIV, the other two show a non-significant association between FGC and higher risk.) Further, the conclusions are quoted somewhat selectively. For example, the following conclusion (from slide 38) seems rather important: "As no biological mechanism seems plausible, we conclude that it is due to irreducible confounding."

For these reasons, I'm reverting the change. Jakew (talk) 15:57, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

The title is "Circumcision and HIV", rather than "Male Circumcision and HIV", and the Stallings paper mentions both "circumcision" and "HIV" in the title. You might regard male and female circumcision as being fundamentally different, but many people don't, including most of the people who actually practise female circumcision. I know this isn't something we're going to agree on any time soon, but I placed the Stallings study there because the preceding paragraph discusses FC/FGC/FGM: <<Dowsett (2007) questioned why it was just males that were being encouraged to circumcise: "Langerhans cells occur in the clitoris, the labia and in other parts of both male and female genitals, and no one is talking of removing these in the name of HIV prevention.">>

You're right about the 3 prior studies not showing a significant correlation. My mistake. The Stallings paper itself does though, and whilst it doesn't mention Langerhans cells, I think it belongs there. Either that, or maybe there should be a separate section or even a new page for "Female Circumcision and HIV" (or "FGC and HIV" or "FGM and HIV").

I don't think it makes much difference whether the correlation is explained away as a "conundrum" or due to "irreducible confounding".

I have made another change, and I would like this to be moderated by a third party rather than just reverted. I know we have very differing views on circumcision, but I hope we can find something for the Wiki page we can both agree on.

regards, Mark --Ml66uk2 (talk) 16:50, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

Stallings may well mention both "circumcision" and "HIV", but that's a very poor basis for randomly inserting material about a different procedure into the article. This is suppossed to be an encyclopaedia article, not a collection of sources that mention at least two words. The fact that circumcision and FGC are different is really beyond dispute. Some people believe that there are similarities between the two, but I think that nobody would deny that they are performed with different methods, on different anatomy, and with different consequences. Thus, female genital cutting is a far more appropriate place for this material.
Dowsett made a comparison between circumcision and FGC within the context of Langerhans cells. Such a comparison cannot be used as an excuse to include otherwise unrelated material; see WP:SYN.
Thank you for acknowledging your mistake about the 3 studies cited by Stallings, but your apparent solution (deleting all mention of the other studies) is — if anything — worse. Including Stallings findings, we know of a total of four studies of FGC and HIV, and all but one of these found no statistically significant difference. Knowing this, why on earth would we want to cite an anomaly? This is actively misleading to the reader, because it creates the impression that such an association exists, when the majority of the literature that we know of is to the contrary. If FGC and HIV is to be discussed anywhere, then we should cite all known studies to avoid giving undue weight to anomalous results.
Similarly, selective quotation still remains. It paints a misleading picture to quote "A lowered risk of HIV infection among circumcised women was not attributable to confounding with another risk factor in these data." but not "As no biological mechanism seems plausible, we conclude that it is due to irreducible confounding." Jakew (talk) 17:14, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

"The fact that circumcision and FGC are different is really beyond dispute."

You know that's not true. Whether you like it or not, "FGC" is also referred to as "female circumcision", and there is much debate as to how different they really are. I personally feel that there are many similarities, especially with the lesser forms of female circumcision. One form of FC/FGC is removing the female prepuce, so directly analogous to the usual form of male circumcision. Just because you don't see any similarity between FC/FGC and male circumcision, doesn't mean you can pretend it's not an issue. Most of the English-speaking people that cut females also refer to it as "circumcision" and regard it as similar to male circumcision. The terms "FGM" and "FGC" are relatively recent as you know.

The Stallings study is later than and appears to have been a lot more rigorous than the other studies, and in my view carries a lot more weight.

I chose that quote because it is actually in the abstract which was cited. Anyway, why would a biological mechanism be plausible for cutting parts of male genitals off, but not for cutting parts of female genitals off?

I'm disappointed that you and Avraham seem to be excluding discussion of female circumcision (aka FGC/FGM) and HIV from a page on circumcision and HIV, and regard it as a sign of bias. --Ml66uk2 (talk) 19:14, 17 June 2009 (UTC)

Seriously? You come back after ostensibly a 6 month hiatus and jump into a discussion that has been going on for years? Perhaps you can take a look at the 40+ pages of Circumcision archives? -- Avi (talk) 19:44, 17 June 2009 (UTC)
I know this has been going on for years, and it will go on for years. I've also read some, though by no means all of the Wiki talk pages on circumcision. That's why I was surprised to read that "The fact that circumcision and FGC are different is really beyond dispute." I regard them as very similar, but I'd never claim that to be "beyond dispute". I find it very sad that a paper titled "Female circumcision and HIV infection in Tanzania: for better or for worse?" is excluded from a page on circumcision and HIV. What do you think the English-speaking people who practise FGC call it? Do you think they see much of a difference between male circumcision and "FGC"? The people who blog about circumcising their daughters get furious if you call it "mutilation" btw.
What exactly do you mean by "ostensibly"? I haven't been posting on circumcision-related issues from another account if that's what you're suggesting. --Ml66uk2 (talk) 20:47, 17 June 2009 (UTC)
I'm sorry that my comment surprises you. To clarify, nobody seriously argues that the two are one and the same (if that were the case then every true statement about one would be a true statement about the other); what is generally disputed is not whether they are different, but how great are the differences. Some (like yourself) believe the differences to be small. Others believe the differences to be substantial. The terminology used is of little help in this respect, as identical terms are sometimes used to describe wholly different concepts (consider, for example, the use of the term "heavy metal" to describe both a class of chemical element and a type of rock music). Jakew (talk) 09:15, 18 June 2009 (UTC)


I don't understand how it can be reasonably claimed that a study on female circumcision and HIV is beyond the scope of an article on circumcision and HIV. The contribution by Ml66uk2 appears relevant and reasonable. Trying to assert that a thing is "beyond dispute" merely contradicts the assertion.

Over on the main HIV page we are treated to a WHO panel recommendation that some people should have pieces of their bodies cut off to benefit some other people, but there is no link to the genital mutilation page, from which it emerges that the WHO condemns similar practices in the case of female circumcision. These two types of mutilation provide context for each other, and for the issue of HIV transmission. Without this context, you don't have NPOV.68.178.59.178 (talk) 17:31, 9 July 2009 (UTC)

Maybe the terminology that some use to describe female genital cutting ("female circumcision") is confusing. For the purpose of this discussion, let's temporarily rename female genital cutting as apples and penile circumcision as bananas. Now, this article is about bananas and HIV. Stallings' presentation was about apples and HIV, so why is it relevant? Jakew (talk) 17:50, 9 July 2009 (UTC)
This article was created as a subarticle of Medical analysis of circumcision, (because that page was getting too long,) which is about male circumcision and which is itself a subarticle of Circumcision, which is also about male circumcision. I've edited the lead to make it clear that this article is about male cirucmcision. ☺Coppertwig (talk) 00:44, 10 July 2009 (UTC)

Uncertainty about efficacy

Given the overwhelming scientific evidence that male circumcision effectively reduced HIV infection, I have to wonder what editors here believe is scientifically proven in medical science? Is antibiotics effective? I am just curious about what standards relate to scientific inquiry here. For example, three RCTs that independently indicate significant efficacy should not be made dubious just because some people bicker about them- Leifern (talk) 19:09, 4 February 2012 (UTC)


1st it's not overwhelming, look at the study in uganda they stopped for "ethical reasons" because it showed circumsized people getting HIV more often than those uncircumsized.

More people get AIDS in Africa just because they're mostly poor there, uneducated, don't get sex education, plenty of prostitutionm around, their govts are too corrupt to pay for proper medical care for the people, etc. Why would skin being on the penis effect that. You have to be an idiot to believe this. 170.3.8.253 (talk)

Need to update

Several important papers have been published recently that are not mentioned. There is a need to update this article. Southdoc (talk) 19:25, 26 March 2012 (UTC)

I agree. This Nature article, dated 30 November 2011, says "For the past three years 13 countries in southern and eastern Africa at the heart of the HIV/AIDS epidemic have been on a mission to circumcise 80 percent of their men by 2015 in an effort to cut in half the rate of sexual transmission of the disease from 2011 levels. And a new series of nine papers, published online Tuesday in PLoS Medicine, assesses whether the ambitious goals could work—and whether they are worth it." It would be good to track down and cite those papers (if they are as relevant as seems likely).
This WHO page (viewed 16 July 2012 claims great certainty about the value of circumcision: "There is compelling evidence that male circumcision reduces the risk of heterosexually acquired HIV infection in men by approximately 60%." Unfortunately it doesn't tell you what the evidence is.
They could be referring to a newer Cochrane review Published Online: 7 OCT 2009, which reviews three large scale studies: "Results from three large randomised controlled trials conducted in Africa have shown strong evidence that male circumcision prevents men in the general population from acquiring HIV from heterosexual sex. At a local level, further research will be needed to assess whether implementing the intervention is feasible, appropriate, and cost-effective in different settings."
I have to confess to being uncertain as to how convinced I should be. I haven't studied this in detail; but I am aware that new treatments (including preventive treatments) often fail to live up to their initial expectations. Issues such as the Hawthorne effect and various forms of bias often make the treatments more valuable than one might hope; and things like Risk compensation effects can reduce the interventions' efficacy. But I also have a prejudice against what I consider mutilation - unnecessary cutting; so I cannot trust my instincts on this one. --peter_english (talk) 14:09, 16 July 2012 (UTC)
The WHO also tells us that cellphones cause cancer, although the statistical facts tell the opposite. If you take the time to read the original studies on circumcision and HIV-infection (especially the RTCs) and you have a proper understanding of scientific methods, you'll find that they're at best inconclusive. Further, the actual infection rates among circumcised men are higher in many African countries than for uncircumcised men. If reality doesn't fit your hypothesis, the latter is wrong --84.130.161.37 (talk) 14:02, 18 July 2012 (UTC)

Keratin Thickness

http://www.plosone.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0041271 http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2951978/

These seem to contradict the findings of McCoombe, Cameron, and Short. — Preceding unsigned comment added by Feathergun (talk • contribs) 21:01, 23 July 2012 (UTC)

Things look messy

So I happen to be going through this page, specifically the Observational Studies section, and I'm surprised by how many of the articles are poorly represented. For instance, most of the studies seem to be on high-risk African-based studies, but not all of them specify this in the body. Now I have no history with this topic, but is the "African-based" thing just a given? Should I have been assuming that these studies are mostly done in high risk areas to begin with? I only ask because I was confused while reading through the text and I'm sure others would be as well. I've since followed the citations and looked up many of the articles, so it is a bit more clear. But should this section maybe be subdivided into the different types of studies? Like, an African-based section, one for the General population studies, and one for cross studies? Just my brief look through some of the articles tells me that the results of the studies seem to vary a lot. Cheers! Ibanez Guy (talk) 18:40, 9 June 2013 (UTC)

There is tremendous variation in the southern African studies with some showing that the circumcised got HIIV more than the uncut. Conversely the big study was stopped for exactly the opposite result early on ethical grounds. There seems to be a big push to promote circumcision as a partial solution to HIV epidemics in Africa. Some other studies have shown that risk behaviour increases for the cut as some cut men think they have gained a sort of universal immunity and behave accordingly. There is a danger in extrapolating these results to other populations where HIV rates can be higher amongst circumcised too. It may be that some high risk multiple partner groups also have a cosmetic or aesthetic fondness for the cut and so any protective effect it may achieve may be masked in these cases. I agree with your suggestion of regionalizing results --— ⦿⨦⨀Tumadoireacht /Stalk 19:40, 9 June 2013 (UTC)
Thanks for your input! I've now gone through all of the studies in that section and looked at the findings in a bit more detail (for those still accessible). While it is difficult to have a complete picture for every study, many of the comments in this article are misleading or very incomplete (especially with regards to geographic regions). Some of the parsing of the paragraphs also suggests connections between studies that aren't really there. Maybe we should start with a basic updating of the information for each study and then go from there. I'll try to sort something out and suggest it here before I change anything. Anyone else have any thoughts on how to make things more clear? Cheers! Ibanez Guy (talk) 21:08, 9 June 2013 (UTC)
I'd agree that this article is long overdue for an overhaul. At this point, only secondary sources should be used to support statements of fact about the scientific consensus regarding the effect of circumcision on HIV transmission. This is an extremely well-studied field and primary sources should not be cited at all. They may be interesting for a historical overview but still need to be used within the context of secondary sources, the history of circumcision and HIV is now very well-documented in secondary sources. To start, as with any other medical intervention, you should make use of resources like PubMed, the TRIP database, and up-to-date texts from medical libraries. The Misplaced Pages guideline governing the sourcing for medical content is WP:MEDRS so all the sourcing updates need to be compliant with that guideline. Zad68 02:15, 10 June 2013 (UTC)
To help get you started: There's lots and lots out there discussing the use of circumcision as part of an HIV management program in Africa. Here's the central repository of information on it from the World Health Organization: link. Here's a recent review article on the use of circumcision within a larger program for HIV management: PMID 23257232, published in The Lancet, one of the most prestigious medical journals around. The full article text is available here. Here's another review article along the same lines, discussing PEPFAR: PMID 22797745, full free text available via PMC; here's a related review PMID 22797743.

Outside of Africa: Here's a review discussing reasons to promote neonatal circumcision in Thailand: PMID 23431830. Here's a review arguing against neonatal circumcision in the particular localities of Australia and New Zealand: PMID 21973253. Here's a rebuttal review countering the arguments of advocates against the practice in developed countries: PMID 22452415.

Hope these are helpful! Zad68 02:52, 10 June 2013 (UTC)

Sourcing review

Here's a review of the current status of the sourcing of this article. There are a lot of problems with the sourcing, hope this is useful for cleaning up the article. Zad68 16:30, 9 January 2014 (UTC)

Sources table

In this table:

  • Source lists the source as cited in the article
  • Seems WP:RS? means, "Does this source appear to meet WP:RS for reliable sourcing?"
  • Use OK? means, is the source used appropriately in the article? For the review, a few selected sources will be spot-checked to ensure they aren't plagiarized and support the article content. ? indicates the source was not spot-checked.
  • Notes will summarize problems found and what needs to be done to fix them
Source Seems WP:RS? Use OK? Notes
<ref>{{cite journal | last=Szabo | first=R. | coauthors=R.V. Short | year=2000 | month=June | title=How does male circumcision protect against HIV infection? | journal=BMJ | volume=320 | issue=7249 | pages=1592–1594 | id= | url=http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/320/7249/1592? | accessdate= | quote= | doi=10.1136/bmj.320.7249.1592 | pmid=10845974 | pmc=1127372 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 10845974: Review
<ref name="VanHoweHIVmeta">{{cite journal | last= Van Howe | first=R.S. | authorlink= | coauthors= | year= 1999 | month= January | title=Circumcision and HIV infection: review of the literature and meta-analysis | journal=International Journal of STD's and AIDS | volume=10 | issue= | pages=8–16 | id= | doi=10.1258/0956462991913015 | url=http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/vanhowe4/ | accessdate= 2008-09-23 | quote=Thirty-five articles and a number of abstracts have been published in the medical literature looking at the relationship between male circumcision and HIV infection. Study designs have included geographical analysis, studies of high-risk patients, partner studies and random population surveys. Most of the studies have been conducted in Africa. A meta-analysis was performed on the 29 published articles where data were available. When the raw data are combined, a man with a circumcised penis is at greater risk of acquiring and transmitting HIV than a man with a non-circumcised penis (odds ratio (OR)=1.06, 95% confidence interval (CI)=1.01-1.12). Based on the studies published to date, recommending routine circumcision as a prophylactic measure to prevent HIV infection in Africa, or elsewhere, is scientifically unfounded.}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last= O'Farrell | first=R.S. | authorlink= | coauthors=M. Egger | year=2000 | month= March | title=Circumcision in men and the prevention of HIV infection: a 'meta-analysis' revisited | journal=International Journal of STD's and AIDS | volume=11 | issue=3 | pages=137–142 | id= | doi=10.1258/0956462001915480 | pmid=10726934 | accessdate= 2008-09-25 | quote=The results from this re-analysis thus support the contention that male circumcision may offer protection against HIV infection, particularly in high-risk groups where genital ulcers and other STDs 'drive' the HIV epidemic. A systematic review is required to clarify this issue. Such a review should be based on an extensive search for relevant studies, published and unpublished, and should include a careful assessment of the design and methodological quality of studies. Much emphasis should be given to the exploration of possible sources of heterogeneity. In view of the continued high prevalence and incidence of HIV in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the question of whether circumcision could contribute to prevent infections is of great importance, and a sound systematic review of the available evidence should be performed without delay. }}</ref> ? ? PMID 10726934: Comment
<ref name="Siegfriedmeta">{{cite journal | last=Siegfried | first=N | authorlink= | coauthors=M Muller, J Volmink, J Deeks, M Egger, N Low, H Weiss, S Walker, P Williamson | year= 2003 | editor1-last=Siegfried | month= July | editor1-first=Nandi | title=Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men | journal=Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume= | issue= 3 | pages=CD003362 | id=CD003362 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003362 | url=http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003362/frame.html | accessdate= 2007-12-27 | quote=We found insufficient evidence to support an interventional effect of male circumcision on HIV acquisition in heterosexual men. The results from existing observational studies show a strong epidemiological association between male circumcision and prevention of HIV, especially among high-risk groups. However, observational studies are inherently limited by confounding which is unlikely to be fully adjusted for. In the light of forthcoming results from RCTs, the value of IPD analysis of the included studies is doubtful. The results of these trials will need to be carefully considered before circumcision is implemented as a public health intervention for prevention of sexually transmitted HIV. | pmid=12917962|}}</ref> ? ? PMID 12917962: Review
<ref>{{cite journal | last=Weiss | first=HA | authorlink= | coauthors=Quigley MA, Hayes RJ. | date=Oct 20, 2000 | title=Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis. | journal= Aids. 2000 | volume=14 | issue=15 | pages=2361–70 | id= | accessdate= 2007-12-27 | quote=Male circumcision is associated with a significantly reduced risk of HIV infection among men in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly those at high risk of HIV. These results suggest that consideration should be given to the acceptability and feasibility of providing safe services for male circumcision as an additional HIV prevention strategy in areas of Africa where men are not traditionally circumcised. | pmid=11089625 | doi=10.1097/00002030-200010200-00018}}</ref> ? ? PMID 11089625: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref name ="ANRS">{{cite journal | last = Auvert | first = B. | coauthors = D. Taljaard, E. Lagarde, J. Sobngwi-Tambekou, R. Sitta and A. Puren | year = 2005 | month = November | title = Randomized, Controlled Intervention Trial of Male Circumcision for Reduction of HIV Infection Risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 1112–1122 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298 | pmid = 16231970 | url = http://medicine.plosjournals.org/archive/1549-1676/2/11/pdf/10.1371_journal.pmed.0020298-S.pdf | format=PDF| quote = There were 20 HIV infections (incidence rate = 0.85 per 100 person-years) in the intervention group and 49 (2.1 per 100 person-years) in the control group, corresponding to an RR of 0.40 (95% CI: 0.24%-0.68%; p < 0.001). This RR corresponds to a protection of 60% (95% CI: 32%-76%). | accessdate = | pmc = 1262556}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16231970: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref name="baileyrct">{{cite journal | last = Bailey | first = Robert C. | coauthors = Stephen Moses, Corette B Parker, Kawango Agot, Ian Maclean, John N Krieger, Carolyn F M Williams, Richard T Campbell, Jeckoniah O Ndinya-Achola | date = February 24, 2007 | title = Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial | journal = ] | volume = 369 | issue = 9562 | pages = 643–656 | publisher = ] | location = London | pmid = 17321310 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60312-2 | oclc = 1755507 | url = http://download.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/0140-6736/PIIS0140673607603122.pdf | format = PDF (free registration required) | accessdate = 2008-09-04 | quote = The two year HIV incidence was 2.1% (95% CI 1.2-3.0) in the circumcision group and 4.2% (3.0-5.4) in the control group (p=0.0065); the relative risk of HIV infection in circumcised men was 0.47 (0.28-0.78), which corresponds to a reduction in the risk of acquiring an HIV infection of 53% (22-72).}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17321310: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref>{{cite journal | last=Gray | first=R.H. | authorlink= | coauthors=''et al.'' | year=2007 | month=February | title=Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial | journal=Lancet | volume=369 | issue=9562 | pages=657–666 | pmid=17321311 | url= | accessdate= | quote=In the modified intention-to-treat analysis, HIV incidence over 24 months was 0.66 cases per 100 person-years in the intervention group and 1.33 cases per 100 person-years in the control group (estimated efficacy of intervention 51%, 95% CI 16-72; p=0.006). The as-treated efficacy was 55% (95% CI 22-75; p=0.002); efficacy from the Kaplan-Meier time-to-HIV-detection as-treated analysis was 60% (30-77; p=0.003). | doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60313-4 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 17321311: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref>{{cite journal |author= E.Mills |coauthors= C.Cooper, A.Anema, G.Guyatt |year=2008 |month=July |title=Male circumcision for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection: a meta-analysis of randomized trials involving 11050 men |journal=HIV Medicine |volume=9 |issue=6 |pages=332–335 |doi=10.1111/j.1468-1293.2008.00596.x |url=http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/120747249/abstract |accessdate=2008-08-24 |quote= |pmid= 18705758 | }}</ref> ? ? PMID 18705758: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref name="WHO_GTPDSA">{{cite web | url = http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596169_eng.pdf | title = Male circumcision: Global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability | accessdate = 2009-03-04 | year = 2007 | publisher = ] | format=PDF}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="WHO_C_R">{{cite journal | title = New Data on Male Circumcision and HIV Prevention: Policy and Programme Implications | publisher = ] | date = March 28, 2007 | url = http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/MCrecommendations_en.pdf | format = PDF | id = | accessdate = 2007-08-13}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="WHOpr0307">{{cite web |title=WHO and UNAIDS announce recommendations from expert consultation on male circumcision for HIV prevention |publisher=World Health Organisation |month=March |year=2007 |url=http://www.who.int/hiv/mediacentre/news68/en/index.html}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="CDC_2008">{{cite web |title=Male Circumcision and Risk for HIV Transmission and Other Health Conditions: Implications for the United States |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |year=2008 |url=http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/circumcision.htm}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0008422|title=The Effects of Circumcision on the Penis Microbiome|year=2010|editor1-last=Bereswill|editor1-first=Stefan|last1=Price|first1=Lance B.|last2=Liu|first2=Cindy M.|last3=Johnson|first3=Kristine E.|last4=Aziz|first4=Maliha|last5=Lau|first5=Matthew K.|last6=Bowers|first6=Jolene|last7=Ravel|first7=Jacques|last8=Keim|first8=Paul S.|last9=Serwadda|first9=David|journal=PLoS ONE|volume=5|pages=e8422|pmid=20066050|issue=1|pmc=2798966}}</ref> ? ? PMID 20066050: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=circumcision-penis-microbiome-hiv-infection|title=Clean-Cut: Study Finds Circumcision Helps Prevent HIV and Other Infections|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/01/100106003617.htm|title=Why Circumcised Men Are Less Likely to Become Infected With HIV: Changes in Bacteria Within Penis Microbiome|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.medpagetoday.com/25106|title=CROI: HIV Protection Lasts After Circumcision|accessdate=2011-04-27}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | journal=JAMA | title=Circumcision Status and Risk of HIV and Sexually Transmitted Infections Among Men Who Have Sex With Men | author=Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G, et al. | year=2008 | volume=300 | issue=14 | pages=1674–1684 | url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/300/14/1674 | doi=10.1001/jama.300.14.1674 | pmid=18840841|}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18840841: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Carael |first=M. |coauthors=P.H. Van de Perre, P.H. Lepage, S. Allen, F. Nsengumuremyi, C. Van Goethem, M. Ntahorutaba, D. Nzaramba, N. Clumeck |year=1988 |month=June |title=Human immunodeficiency virus transmission among heterosexual couples in Central Africa. |journal=AIDS |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=201–205 |pmid=3134914 |url= |accessdate= |quote= }}</ref> ? ? PMID 3134914: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Grosskurth |first=H. |coauthors=F. Mosha, J. Todd, K. Senkoro, J. Newell, A. Klokke, J. Changalucha, B. West, P. Mayaud, A. Gavyole A, ''et al.'' |year=1995 |month=August |title=A community trial of the impact of improved sexually transmitted disease treatment on the HIV epidemic in rural Tanzania: 2. Baseline survey results. |journal=AIDS |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=927–934 |pmid=7576329 |url= |accessdate= |quote= |doi=10.1097/00002030-199508000-00015 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 7576329: Clinical Trial, Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Barongo |first=L.R. |coauthors=M.W. Borgdorff, F.F. Mosha, A. Nicoll, H. Grosskurth, K.P. Senkoro, J.N. Newell, J. Changalucha, A.H. Klokke, J.Z. Killewo JZ, ''et al.'' |year=1992 |month=December |title=The epidemiology of HIV-1 infection in urban areas, roadside settlements and rural villages in Mwanza Region, Tanzania. |journal=AIDS |volume=6 |issue=12 |pages=1521–1528 |pmid=1492935 |url= |accessdate= |quote= |doi=10.1097/00002030-199212000-00016 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 1492935: Comparative Study
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mills |first=J. |coauthors=N. Siegfried |year=2006 |month=October |title=Cautious optimism for new HIV/AIDS prevention strategies. |journal=Lancet |volume=368 |issue=9543 |pages=1236 |pmid=17027724 |url= |accessdate= |quote= "The inferences drawn from the only completed randomised controlled trial (RCT) of circumcision could be weak because the trial stopped early. In a systematic review of RCTs stopped early for benefit, such RCTs were found to overestimate treatment effects. When trials with events fewer than the median number (n=66) were compared with those with event numbers above the median, the odds ratio for a magnitude of effect greater than the median was 28 (95% CI 11--73). The circumcision trial recorded 69 events, and is therefore at risk of serious effect overestimation. We therefore advocate an impartial meta-analysis of individual patients' data from this and other trials underway before further feasibility studies are done. |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69513-5 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 17027724: Letter
<ref>{{cite web | last = Alcena | first = Valiere | title = AIDS in Third World countries | work = response to "Randomized, Controlled Intervention Trial of Male Circumcision for Reduction of HIV Infection Risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial" | publisher = PLos Medicine | date = 2006-10-16 | url = http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=read-response&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298#r1326 | format = | doi = | accessdate = 2008-08-24 }}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Alcena | first = Valiere | title = AIDS in Third World countries | journal = New York State Journal of Medicine | volume = 86 | issue = 8 | pages = 446 | year = 1986 | month = August | url = http://www.popline.org/docs/057476 | doi = | id =kenya | accessdate =2008-08-24 }} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}.</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal |doi=10.1056/NEJM198610303151818 |last=Fink |first=Aaron J. |authorlink=Aaron J. Fink |year=1986 |month=October |title=A possible explanation for heterosexual male infection with AIDS |journal=New England Journal of Medicine |volume=315 |issue=18 |pages=1167|pmid=3762636 |accessdate=2008-08-24 |quote= }}</ref> ? ? PMID 3762636: Letter
<ref>{{cite journal |last=Cameron |first=DW |authorlink= |coauthors=Simonsen JN, D'Costa LJ, Ronald AR, Maitha GM, Gakinya MN, Cheang M, Ndinya-Achola JO, Piot P, Brunham RC, et al. |year=1989 |month=August |title=Female to male transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1: risk factors for seroconversion in men. |journal=Lancet |volume=2 |issue=8660 |pages=403–7 |pmid= 2569597 |url= |accessdate= |quote= |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(89)90589-8 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 2569597: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref name ="Szabo">{{cite journal | last = Szabo | first = Robert | coauthors = Roger V. Short | year = 2000 | month = June | title = How does male circumcision protect against HIV infection? | journal = BMJ | volume = 320 | issue = 7249 | pages = 1592–1594 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.320.7249.1592 | pmid = 10845974 | url = http://bmj.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/320/7249/1592 | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-07-09 | pmc = 1127372}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10845974: Review
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Ndozi | first = | coauthors = | year = 1995 | month = April | title = The East African AIDS epidemic and the absence of male circumcision: what is the link? Using circumcision to prevent HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: the view of an African | journal = Health Transition Review | volume = 5 | issue = 1 | pages = 97–117 | doi = | pmid = | url = http://htc.anu.edu.au/pdfs/Forum5_1.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-10-18}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal |author=O'Farrell N, Egger M |title=Circumcision in men and the prevention of HIV infection: a 'meta-analysis' revisited |journal=Int J STD AIDS |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=137–42 |year=2000 |month=March |pmid=10726934 |url=http://ijsa.rsmjournals.com/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=10726934 |quote=The results from this re-analysis thus support the contention that male circumcision may offer protection against HIV infection, particularly in high-risk groups where genital ulcers and other STDs 'drive' the HIV epidemic. A systematic review is required to clarify this issue. Such a review should be based on an extensive search for relevant studies, published and unpublished, and should include a careful assessment of the design and methodological quality of studies. Much emphasis should be given to the exploration of possible sources of heterogeneity. In view of the continued high prevalence and incidence of HIV in many countries in sub-Saharan Africa, the question of whether circumcision could contribute to prevent infections is of great importance, and a sound systematic review of the available evidence should be performed without delay. |doi=10.1258/0956462001915480}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10726934: Comment
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Moses S, Nagelkerke NJ, Blanchard J |title=Analysis of the scientific literature on male circumcision and risk for HIV infection |journal=International journal of STD & AIDS |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=626–8 |year=1999 |month=September |pmid=10492434 |doi= 10.1258/0956462991914681|url=http://ijsa.rsmjournals.com/cgi/reprint/10/9/626?ijkey=a1ca8d961969d1a6970456a1a43f7ac7aa24304a&keytype2=tf_ipsecsha | format= PDF}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10492434: Comment, Letter
<ref name=Weiss2000>{{cite journal | last = Weiss | first = H.A. | coauthors= Quigley M.A., Hayes R.J. | year = 2000 | month = October | title = Male circumcision and risk of HIV infection in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal = AIDS | volume = 14 | issue = 15 | pages = 2361–70 | pmid = 11089625 | url = http://www.aidsonline.com/pt/re/aids/pdfhandler.00002030-200010200-00018.pdf;jsessionid=L57hvrjhsS0JsXGZmmHZ2gpTTbZ7x5wqJh2CTXFDpNvpC8rNxmL1!949623904!181195628!8091!-1 | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-200010200-00018}}</ref> ? ? PMID 11089625: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref>{{cite conference | last = USAID/AIDSMark | title = Conference Report | booktitle = Program and Policy Implications For HIV Prevention and Reproductive Health | pages = 1–48 | publisher = USAID/AIDSMark | date = 18–19 September 2002 | location = Washington, DC | url = http://www.psi.org/resources/pubs/male-circ.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-10-04 | id =}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="Siegfried2003">{{cite journal |author=Siegfried N, Muller M, Volmink J, ''et al'' |editor1-last=Siegfried |editor1-first=Nandi |title=Male circumcision for prevention of heterosexual acquisition of HIV in men |journal=Cochrane database of systematic reviews (Online) |volume= |issue=3 |pages=CD003362 |year=2003 |pmid=12917962 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD003362 |url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 12917962: Review
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Siegfried N, Muller M, Deeks J, ''et al'' |title=HIV and male circumcision--a systematic review with assessment of the quality of studies |journal=The Lancet infectious diseases |volume=5 |issue=3 |pages=165–73 |year=2005 |month=March |pmid=15766651 |doi=10.1016/S1473-3099(05)01309-5 |url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 15766651: Review
<ref>{{cite conference | first = Noah | last = Kiwanuka | authorlink = | coauthors = Gray R., Sewankambo N.K., Serwadda D., Wawer M., Li C. | title = International Conference AIDS. | booktitle = Religion, behaviours, and circumcision as determinants of HIV dynamics in rural Uganda | pages = | publisher = | date = 7–12 July 1996 | location = ], ] | url = http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/ma?f=102221633.html | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | id =}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | author=Kelly R, Kiwanuka N, Wawer MJ, ''et al'' |title=Age of male circumcision and risk of prevalent HIV infection in rural Uganda |journal=AIDS |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=399–405 |year=1999 |month=February |pmid=10199231 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=0269-9370&volume=13&issue=3&spage=399 | doi=10.1097/00002030-199902250-00013}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10199231: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Buvé | first = Anne | coauthors= M. Laga, E. Van Dyck, W. Janssens, L. Heyndricks; S. Anagonou ; M. Laourou; L. Kanhonou; Evina Akam, M. de Loenzien ; S-C. Abega ; Zekeng ; J. Chege ; V Kimani, J Olenja ; M Kahindo; F. Kaona, R Musonda, T. Sukwa ; N. Rutenberg ; B Auvert, E Lagarde ; B Ferry, N Lydié ; R. Hayes, L Morison, H Weiss, J. Glynn ; N.J. Robinson ; M. Caraël | year = 1999 | month = September | title = Differences in HIV spread in four sub-Saharan African cities | journal = UNAIDS | volume = | issue = | pages = UNAIDS fact sheet | pmid = | url = http://data.unaids.org/Publications/IRC-pub03/lusaka99_en.html | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | nopp = true}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Buvé | first = Anne | coauthors= Carael M., Hayes R. J., Auvert B., Ferry B., Robinson N. J., Anagonou S., Kanhonou L., Laourou M., Abega S., Akam E., Zekeng L., Chege J., Kahindo M., Rutenberg N., Kaona F., Musonda R., Sukwa T., Morison L., Weiss H, A., Laga M. | year = 2001 | month = August | title = Multicentre study on factors determining differences in rate of spread of HIV in sub-Saharan Africa: methods and prevalence of HIV infection | journal = AIDS | volume = 15 | issue = Supplement 4 | pages = S5–S14 | pmid = | url = http://www.aidsonline.com/pt/re/aids/pdfhandler.00002030-200108004-00002.pdf;jsessionid=LbgSyTLVTgklp7Ns1JPGXpczTGPLmS80XKGVQtY1rtwgrGTPXBNt!1455807198!181195628!8091!-1 | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-09-25}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | author=Bailey RC, Neema S, Othieno R |title=Sexual behaviors and other HIV risk factors in circumcised and uncircumcised men in Uganda |journal=] |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=294–301 |year=1999 |month=November |pmid=10770351 |url=http://meta.wkhealth.com/pt/pt-core/template-journal/lwwgateway/media/landingpage.htm?issn=1525-4135&volume=22&issue=3&spage=294}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10770351: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Bonner | first = Kate | year = 2001 | month = November | title = Male circumcision as an HIV control strategy: not a 'natural condom'. | journal = Reproductive health matters | volume = 9 | issue = 18 | pages = 143–155 | doi = 10.1016/S0968-8080(01)90101-6 | pmid = 11765391 | format=PDF| accessdate = 2008-10-08}}</ref> ? ? PMID 11765391: Review
<ref>{{cite conference | first = S.M | last = Changedia | coauthors = Gilada I.S. | title = International Conference AIDS. | booktitle = Religion, behaviours, and circumcision as determinants of HIV dynamics in rural Uganda | pages = | publisher = aegis.com | date = 7–12 July 2002 | location = ], ] | url = http://www.aegis.com/conferences/iac/2002/ThPeC7420.html | accessdate = 2008-10-04 | id =}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Fonck | first = K. | coauthors = Kidula N, Kirui P, Ndinya-Achola J, Bwayo J, Claeys P, Temmerman M | year = 2000 | month = August | title = Pattern of sexually transmitted diseases and risk factors among women attending an STD referral clinic in Nairobi, Kenya | journal = Sexually transmitted diseases | volume = 27 | issue = 7 | pages = 417–423 | doi = 10.1097/00007435-200008000-00007 | pmid = 10949433 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=1455493 | accessdate = 2008-10-04}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10949433: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Marck | first = Jeff | coauthors= | year = 1997 | title = Aspects of male circumcision in subequatorial African culture history | journal = Health Transition Review | volume = 7 | issue = Supplement | pages = 337–60 | pmid = 10173099 | url = http://htc.anu.edu.au/pdfs/Marck1.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-10-16}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10173099: Review
<ref>{{cite journal | last = | first = | coauthors= | year = 2007 | title = Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence, safety and acceptability | journal = Who/Unaids | volume = | issue = | pages = | pmid = | url = http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2007/9789241596169_eng.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-10-16}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = | first = | coauthors= | year = 2008 | title = Towards Universal access: Scaling up priority HIV/AIDS interventions in the health sector | journal = Who/Unaids/Unicef | volume = | issue = | pages = 75 | pmid = | url = http://www.unicef.org/aids/files/towards_universal_access_report_2008.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2008-10-16}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Kebaabetswe | first = P. | coauthors= S. Lockman, S. Mogwe, R. Mandevu, I Thior, M Essex, R. L. Shapiro | year = 2003 | month = | title = Male circumcision: an acceptable strategy for HIV prevention in Botswana | journal = Sexually Transmitted Infections | volume = 79 | issue = 3 | pages = 214–219 | pmid = 12794204 | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | doi = 10.1136/sti.79.3.214 | pmc = 1744675}}</ref> ? ? PMID 12794204: Multicenter Study
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Boyle | first = G. J. | coauthors= | year = 2003 | month = November | title = Issues associated with the introduction of circumcision into a non-circumcising society | journal = Sexually transmitted infections | volume = 79 | issue = 5 | pages = 427–428 | pmid = 14573850 | doi = 10.1136/sti.79.5.427 | url = http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/boyle-sti/ | format = | pmc = 1744753}}</ref> ? ? PMID 14573850: Comment, Letter
<ref>{{cite conference | first = Robert C. | last = Bailey | authorlink = | coauthors = Opeya C.J., Ayieko B.O., Kawango A., Onyango M.O, Moses S, Ndinya-Achola J.O., Krieger J.N. | title = International Conference AIDS | booktitle = Adult male circumcision in Kenya: safety and patient satisfaction | pages = | publisher = | date = 11–16 July 2004 | location = Bangkok | url = http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/ma?f=102282470.html | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | id =}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.aids2004.org/ |title=15th International AIDS Conference, 2004, Bangkok,Thailand |accessdate=2008-09-25 |work= |publisher= |date=11–14 July 2004 }}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite conference |first=C.A. |last=Connolly |authorlink= |coauthors=O. Shisana, L. Simbayi, M. Colvin |title=15th International AIDS Conference |booktitle=HIV and circumcision in South Africa. |pages= |publisher= |date=11–16 July 2004 |location= ], ] |url=http://www.aegis.com/conferences/iac/2004/MoPeC3491.html |accessdate= |id= }}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite conference |first=A.G. |last=Thomas |authorlink= |coauthors=, L.N. Bakhireva, S.K. Brodine, R.A. Shaffer|title=15th International AIDS Conference |booktitle=Prevalence of male circumcision and its association with HIV and sexually transmitted infections in a U.S. navy population |pages= |publisher= |date=11–16 July 2004 |location= ], ] |url=http://www.aegis.com/conferences/iac/2004/TuPeC4861.html |accessdate= |id= }}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | author=Reynolds SJ, Shepherd ME, Risbud AR, ''et al'' |title=Male circumcision and risk of HIV-1 and other sexually transmitted infections in India |journal=Lancet |volume=363 |issue=9414 |pages=1039–40 |year=2004 |month=March |pmid=15051285 |doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15840-6 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 15051285: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | author=Baeten JM, Richardson BA, Lavreys L, ''et al'' |title=Female-to-male infectivity of HIV-1 among circumcised and uncircumcised Kenyan men |journal=J. Infect. Dis. |volume=191 |issue=4 |pages=546–53 |year=2005 |month=February |pmid=15655778 |doi=10.1086/427656 |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/427656}}</ref> ? ? PMID 15655778: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite conference |first=Thomas C. |last=Quinn |authorlink= |coauthors=''et al'' |title=Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections |booktitle=Review shows male circumcision protects female partners from HIV and other STDs |pages= |publisher= |date=5–9 February 2006 |location= ], ] |url=http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2006-02/jhmi-rsm020306.php |accessdate= |id= }}</ref> ? ?
<ref name ="Newell">{{cite journal | last = Newell | first = Marie-Lousie | coauthors = Till Bärnighausen | date = February 24, 2007 | title = Male circumcision to cut HIV risk in the general population | journal = ] | volume = 369 | issue = 9562 | pages = 617–619 | pmid = 17321292 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60288-8 | url = http://download.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/0140-6736/PIIS0140673607602888.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-04-01}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17321292: Comment
<ref>{{cite web | url = http://apha.confex.com/apha/134am/techprogram/paper_136814.htm | title = Risk behaviors and patterns of HIV seroprevalence in countries with generalized epidemics: Results from the Demographic and Health Surveys | accessdate = 2008-10-08 | year = 2006 | publisher = APHA Scientific Session and Event Listing}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite conference | first = A. | last = Way | coauthors = V. Mishra, R. Hong, K. Johnson | title = AIDS 2006 - XVI International AIDS Conference | booktitle = Is male circumcision protective of HIV infection? | pages = | publisher = International Aids Society | date = 7–12 July 2006 | location = ], ] | url = http://www.iasociety.org/Default.aspx?pageId=11&abstractId=2197431 | accessdate = 2008-10-08}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name ="Garenne">{{cite journal | last = Garenne | first = Michel | year = 2006 | month = January | title = Male Circumcision and HIV Control in Africa | journal = ] | volume = 3 | issue = 1 | pages = e78 | pmid = 16435906 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030078 | url = http://medicine.plosjournals.org/perlserv/?request=get-document&doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030078 | accessdate = 2007-04-01 | pmc = 1360650}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16435906: Comment, Letter
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Halperin | first = Daniel | year = 2007 | month = June | title = Male Circumcision Matters (as One Part of an Integrated HIV Prevention Response) | journal = ] | volume = | issue = | pages = | pmid = | doi = | url = http://www.plosone.org/annotation/listThread.action?inReplyTo=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fannotation%2F723&root=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fannotation%2F723 | accessdate = 2008-09-25}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name ="PROSTITUTION">{{cite journal | last = Talbott | first = John R. | year = 2007 | month = June | title = Size Matters: The Number of Prostitutes and the Global HIV/AIDS Pandemic | journal = ] | volume = 2 | editor1-first = Cesar | issue = 6 | pages = e543 | editor1-last = Ugarte-Gil | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0000543 | url = http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.000054 | accessdate = 2007-07-09 | last2 = Ugarte-Gil | first2 = Cesar | pmid = 17579715 | pmc = 1891093 | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20070927194947/http://www.plosone.org/article/fetchArticle.action?articleURI=info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.000054 |archivedate = 2007-09-27}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17579715: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |title=Circumcision for HIV needs follow-up |author=Butler, D; Odling-Smee, L |journal=Nature |year=2007 |month=June |volume=447 |pages=1040–1 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v447/n7148/box/4471040a_BX1.html |doi=10.1038/4471040a |pmid=17597727 |issue=7148}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17597727: News
<ref name ="CSAI_99">{{cite web | year = 1999 | month = December | url = http://www.ama-assn.org/ama/no-index/about-ama/13585.shtml | title = Report 10 of the Council on Scientific Affairs (I-99):Neonatal Circumcision | work = 1999 AMA Interim Meeting: Summaries and Recommendations of Council on Scientific Affairs Reports | pages = 17 | publisher = ] | accessdate = 2006-06-13}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Brewer | first= Devon | year = 2007| month= February | title = Male and Female Circumcision Associated with Prevalent HIV Infection in Virgins and Adolescents in Kenya, Lesotho, and Tanzania | journal = Annals of Epidemiology | volume = 17 | issue = 3 |pages=217–26 |url=http://www.annalsofepidemiology.org/article/PIIS1047279706002651/abstract | doi = 10.1016/j.annepidem.2006.10.010 | pmid = 17320788 | last2 = Potterat | first2 = JJ | last3 = Roberts Jr | first3 = JM | last4 = Brody | first4 = S}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17320788: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Van Howe | first = Robert | coauthors= J. Steven Svoboda, Frederick M. Hodges, | year = 2005 | month = November | title = HIV infection and circumcision: cutting through the hyperbole | journal = Journal of the royal society for the promotion of health | volume = 125 | issue = 6 | pages = 259–65 | pmid = 16353456 | doi = 10.1177/146642400512500607 | url = http://www.cirp.org/library/disease/HIV/vanhowe2005a/ | quote = We contend that the rush to intervene has little to do with preventing HIV infection in Africa and may have more to do with a conscious and/or unconscious impulse to help perpetuate and promote the practice in North America. There is ample indirect evidence to support this contention.}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16353456: Historical Article
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Connolly | first = Catherine | coauthors = Leickness C. Simbayi, Rebecca Shanmugam, Ayanda Nqeketo | month = October | year = 2008 | title = Male circumcision and its relationship to HIV infection in South Africa: Results of a national survey in 2002 | journal = ] | volume = 98 | issue = 10 | pages = 789–94 | pmid = | doi = | url = http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/254/2144 | format = PDF}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Sidler | first = D. | coauthors = J. Smith, H. Rode | date = 29 September 2008 | title = Neonatal circumcision does not reduce HIV/AIDS infection rates | journal = South African medical journal | volume = 8 | issue = 10 | pages = 762–766 | pmid = | doi = | url = http://www.samj.org.za/index.php/samj/article/viewFile/1811/2152 | format = PDF}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Boiley | first = MC | coauthors = K Desai1, B Masse2, A Gumel3 | month = October | year = 2008 | title = Incremental role of male circumcision on a generalised HIV epidemic through its protective effect against other sexually transmitted infections: from efficacy to effectiveness to population-level impact | journal = Sexually Transmitted Infections | volume = 84 | issue = Supplement 2 | pages = ii28–34 | doi = 10.1136/sti.2008.030346 | url = http://sti.bmj.com/cgi/content/abstract/84/Suppl_2/ii28 | format = | pmid=18799489|}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18799489: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Millett | first = G.A. | coauthors = Ding H., Lauby J., Flores S., Stueve A., Bingham T., Carballo-Dieguez A., Murrill C., Liu K.L., Wheeler D., Liau A., Marks G. | year = 2007 | month = December | title = Circumcision status and HIV infection among Black and Latino men who have sex with men in 3 US cities | journal = Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes | volume = 46 | issue = 5 | pages = 643–50 | pmid = 18043319 | url = http://www.jaids.org/pt/re/jaids/abstract.00126334-200712150-00017.htm;jsessionid=Lb9TQkjvDPZQYf0xc27xyTDQNBfjDQGC6mqwRpmzHJFXb2yk1GyQ!1455807198!181195628!8091!-1 | accessdate = 2007-07-09 | doi = 10.1097/QAI.0b013e31815b834d}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18043319: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Lagarde | first = Emmanuel | coauthors= Dirk Taljaard, Puren Adrian, Reathe Rain-Taljaard, Bertran Auvert | year = 2003 | month = January | title = Acceptability of male circumcision as a tool for preventing HIV infection in a highly infected community in South Africa | journal = AIDS | volume = 17 | issue = 1 | pages = 89–95 | pmid = 12478073 | issn = 0269-9370 | url = http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=14470835 | format = | accessdate = 2008-09-25 | doi = 10.1097/00002030-200301030-00012}}</ref> ? ? PMID 12478073: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref name=millett>{{cite journal |author=Millett GA, Flores SA, Marks G, Reed JB, Herbst JH |title=Circumcision status and risk of HIV and sexually transmitted infections among men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis |journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=14 |pages=1674–84 |year=2008 |month=October |pmid=18840841 |doi=10.1001/jama.300.14.1674 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/300/14/1674}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18840841: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref name=vermund>{{cite journal |author=Vermund SH, Qian HZ |title=Circumcision and HIV prevention among men who have sex with men: no final word |journal=JAMA |volume=300 |issue=14 |pages=1698–700 |year=2008 |month=October |pmid=18840846 |doi=10.1001/jama.300.14.1698 |url=http://jama.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/short/300/14/1698}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18840846: Comment, Editorial
<ref name=NIAIDQA>{{cite web | url = http://www3.niaid.nih.gov/news/QA/AMC12_QA.htm | title = NIAID QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS Sponsored Adult Male Circumcision Trials in Kenya and Uganda | accessdate = 2008-07-11 | date = December 13, 2006 | publisher = National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (]0}} {{Dead link|date=November 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>http://www.phru.co.za/pdf/circumcision/pitfalls.pdf</ref> ? ?
<ref name ="ANRS">{{cite journal | last = Auvert | first = Bertran | coauthors = Dirk Taljaard, Emmanuel Lagarde, Joëlle Sobngwi-Tambekou, Rémi Sitta, Adrian Puren | year = 2005 | month = November | title = Randomized, Controlled Intervention Trial of Male Circumcision for Reduction of HIV Infection Risk: The ANRS 1265 Trial | journal = PLoS Medicine | volume = 2 | issue = 11 | pages = 1112–22 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0020298 | pmid = 16231970 | url = http://medicine.plosjournals.org/archive/1549-1676/2/11/pdf/10.1371_journal.pmed.0020298-S.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-07-09 | pmc = 1262556}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16231970: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref name ="PLoS_7_06">{{cite journal | last = Williams | first = Brian G. | authorlink = | coauthors = James O. Lloyd-Smith, Eleanor Gouws, Catherine Hankins, Wayne M. Getz, John Hargrove, Isabelle de Zoysa, Christopher Dye, Bertran Auvert | year = 2006 | month = July | title = The Potential Impact of Male Circumcision on HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa | journal = ] | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = e262 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030262 | pmid = 16822094 | url = http://medicine.plosjournals.org/archive/1549-1676/3/7/pdf/10.1371_journal.pmed.0030262-p-L.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-07-13 | pmc = 1489185}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16822094: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal | coauthors = Edward Mills, Nandi Siegfried | year = 2006 | month = October | title = Cautious optimism for new HIV/AIDS prevention strategies | journal = Lancet | volume = 368 | issue = 9543 | pages = 1236 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(06)69513-5 | pmid = 17027724 | url = http://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140673606695135/fulltext | format = | accessdate = 2008-09-18 | last1 = Mills | first1 = E}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17027724: Letter
<ref>http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=jl-11-03 Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in Men in Rakai, Uganda: A Randomised Trial</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web | url = http://hivinsite.ucsf.edu/InSite?page=jl-11-03 | title = Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in Men in Rakai, Uganda: A Randomised Trial | accessdate = 2008-07-11 | date = March 26, 2007 | publisher = UCSF Institute for Global Health Literature Digest}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="baileyrct">{{cite journal | last = Bailey | first = Robert C | coauthors = Stephen Moses, Corette B Parker, Kawango Agot, Ian Maclean, John N Krieger, Carolyn F M Williams, Richard T Campbell, Jeckoniah O Ndinya-Achola | date = February 24, 2007 | title = Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu, Kenya: a randomised controlled trial | journal = ] | volume = 369 | issue = 9562 | pages = 643–656 | pmid = 17321310 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60312-2 | url = http://download.thelancet.com/pdfs/journals/0140-6736/PIIS0140673607603122.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-04-01}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17321310: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref name="grayrct">{{cite journal | last = Gray | first = Ronald H | coauthors = Godfrey Kigozi, David Serwadda, Frederick Makumbi, Stephen Watya, Fred Nalugoda, Noah Kiwanuka, Lawrence H Moulton, Mohammad A Chaudhary, Michael Z Chen, Nelson K Sewankambo, Fred Wabwire-Mangen, Melanie C Bacon, Carolyn F M Williams, Pius Opendi, Steven J Reynolds, Oliver Laeyendecker, Thomas C Quinn, Maria J Wawer | date = February 24, 2007 | title = Male circumcision for HIV prevention in men in Rakai, Uganda: a randomised trial | journal = ] | volume = 369 | issue = 9562 | pages = 657–66 | pmid = 17321311 | doi = 10.1016/S0140-6736(07)60313-4 | url = http://hssp.ph/pubdocs/HIV-Lancet%20-%20MC%20Uganda%2002.24.07.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2007-07-11}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17321311: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.newscientist.com/article.ns?id=dn11481&feedId=online-news_rss20 | title = WHO hails circumcision as vital in HIV fight | accessdate = 2008-09-18 | date = March 28, 2007 | publisher = ]}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="WHOsec">{{cite web | url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2007/s04/en/index.html | title = WHO and UNAIDS Secretariat welcome corroborating findings of trials assessing impact of male circumcision on HIV risk | accessdate = 2007-02-23 | date = February 23, 2007 | publisher = World Health Organization}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/statements/2006/s18/en/index.html | title = Male circumcision reduces the risk of becoming infected with HIV, but does not provide complete protection | accessdate = 2006-07-20 | date = December 13, 2006 | publisher = World Health Organization}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite web | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/health/4371384.stm | title = Circumcision 'reduces HIV risk' | date = October 25, 2005 | publisher = BBC News}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="Dowsett2007">{{cite journal |last=Dowsett |first=G.W. |coauthors=M. Couch |year=2007 |month=May |title=Male circumcision and HIV prevention: is there really enough of the right kind of evidence? |journal=Reproductive Health Matters |volume=15 |issue=29 |pages= 33–44 |pmid=17512372 |url=http://download.journals.elsevierhealth.com/pdfs/journals/0968-8080/PIIS0968808007293024.pdf | format= PDF |accessdate= |quote= |doi=10.1016/S0968-8080(07)29302-4 }}</ref> ? ? PMID 17512372: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite web | url =http://www.aidsmap.com/en/news/3CBF12A3-A1AC-4A0E-A79C-54FC6EF93E28.asp | author = Virginia Differding | title = Women may be at heightened risk of HIV infection immediately after male partner is circumcised | accessdate = 2007-03-14 | date = March 12, 2007 | publisher = Aidsmap News}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Green | first = Lawrence W | coauthors = McAllister, Ryan G; Peterson, Kent W; Travis, John W | month = May | year = 2008 | title = Male circumcision is not the vacine we have been waiting for | journal = Future HIV therapy | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages = 193–199 | pmid = | doi = 10.2217/17469600.2.3.193 | url = http://www.futuremedicine.com/doi/pdf/10.2217/17469600.2.3.193 | format = PDF}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name="weiss2008">{{cite journal | author=Weiss HA, Halperin D, Bailey RC, Hayes RJ, Schmid G, Hankins CA | title=Male circumcision for HIV prevention: from evidence to action? | journal=AIDS | volume=22 | issue=5 | pages=567–74 | year=2008 | month=March | pmid=18316997 | doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e3282f3f406 | url= http://www.aidsvaccineclearinghouse.org/pdf/MC/Weiss_AIDS_2008.pdf|format=PDF}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18316997: Editorial, Review
<ref name="mills2008">{{cite journal | author=Mills E, Cooper C, Anema A, Guyatt G | title=Male circumcision for the prevention of heterosexually acquired HIV infection: a meta-analysis of randomized trials involving 11,050 men | journal=HIV Med. | volume=9 | issue=6 | pages=332–5 | year=2008 | month=July | pmid=18705758 | doi=10.1111/j.1468-1293.2008.00596.x | url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18705758: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref name="byakika2008">{{cite journal | author=Byakika-Tusiime J | title=Circumcision and HIV Infection: Assessment of Causality | journal=AIDS Behav | volume=12 | issue=6 | pages=835–41 | year=2008 | month=September | pmid=18800244 | doi=10.1007/s10461-008-9453-6 | url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18800244: Meta-Analysis, Review
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Podder CN, Sharomi O, Gumel AB, Moses S |title=To cut or not to cut: a modeling approach for assessing the role of male circumcision in HIV control |journal=Bull. Math. Biol. |volume=69 |issue=8 |pages=2447–66 |year=2007 |month=November |pmid=17557187 |doi=10.1007/s11538-007-9226-9 |url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17557187: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Hallett TB, Singh K, Smith JA, White RG, Abu-Raddad LJ, Garnett GP |editor1-last=Fretheim |editor1-first=Atle |title=Understanding the impact of male circumcision interventions on the spread of HIV in southern Africa |journal=PLoS ONE |volume=3 |issue=5 |pages=e2212 |year=2008 |pmid=18493593 |pmc=2387228 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0002212 |url=}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18493593: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |author=Kahn JG, Marseille E, Auvert B |title=Cost-effectiveness of male circumcision for HIV prevention in a South African setting |journal=PLoS Med |year=2006 |volume=3 |issue=12 |pages=e157 |pmid=17194197 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.0030517 |pmc=1716193}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17194197: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |author=White RG, Glynn JR, Orroth KK, Freeman EE, Bakker R, Weiss HA, Kumaranayake L, Habbema JD, Buvé A, Hayes RJ |title=Male circumcision for HIV prevention in sub-Saharan Africa: who, what and when? |journal=AIDS |year=2008 |volume=22 |issue=14 |pages=1841–50 |pmid=18753931 |doi=10.1097/QAD.0b013e32830e0137}}</ref> ? ? PMID 18753931: (unspecified, possibly primary)
<ref>{{cite journal |author=UNAIDS/WHO/SACEMA Expert Group on Modelling the Impact and Cost of Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention |title=Male Circumcision for HIV Prevention in High HIV Prevalence Settings: What Can Mathematical Modelling Contribute to Informed Decision Making? |journal=PLoS Med |volume=6 |issue=9 |pages=e1000109 |url=http://www.plosmedicine.org/article/info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000109 |doi=10.1371/journal.pmed.1000109 |pmid=19901974 |year=2009 |pmc=2731851}}</ref> ? ? PMID 19901974: Review
<ref>{{cite journal | author = Mcallister RG, Travis JW, Bollinger D, Rutiser C, Sundar V| title = The cost to circumcise Africa | journal = ] | publisher = Men's Studies Press | volume = 7| issue = 3 | year = Fall 2008 | doi = 10.3149/jmh.0703.307 | pages = 307–316 | url = http://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+cost+to+circumcise+Africa.-a0189486243 | issn = 1532-6306 }}(Online ISSN: 1933-0278)</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Hussain LA | first = LA | authorlink = | coauthors = T. Lehner | year = 1995 | month = July | title = Comparative investigation of Langerhans' cells and potential receptors for HIV in oral, genitourinary and rectal epithelia | journal = Immunology | volume = 85 | issue = 3 | pages = 475–484 | doi = | pmid = 7558138 | url = | format = Abstract | accessdate = 2006-07-09 | pmc = 1383923}}</ref> ? ? PMID 7558138: Comparative Study
<ref>{{cite journal | last = Donoval | first = BA | authorlink = | coauthors = AL Landay, S Moses, K Agot, JO Ndinya-Achola, EA Nyagaya, I MacLean, and RC Bailey | year = 2006 | month = March | title = HIV-1 target cells in foreskins of African men with varying histories of sexually transmitted infections | journal = American Journal of Clinical Pathology | volume = 125 | issue = 3 | pages = 386–391 | doi = 10.1309/JVHQ-VDJD-YKM5-8EPH | pmid = 16613341 | url = http://ajcp.metapress.com/link.asp?id=jvhqvdjdykm58eph | format = Abstract | accessdate = 2006-07-09}}</ref> ? ? PMID 16613341: Randomized Controlled Trial
<ref>{{cite journal | author= McCoombe SG, Cameron PU, Short RV | date= July 7, 2002 | url= http://www.aegis.com/conferences/iac/2002/WePeA5739.html | format= Abstract | title= The distribution of HIV-1 target cells and keratin in the human penis. | publisher= International AIDS Society | version= | accessdate= 2006-07-09}}</ref> ? ?
<ref name=Fleiss>{{cite journal | last = Van Howe | first = Robert | coauthors = Christopher J. Cold,Michelle R. Storms | year = 2000 | month = December | title = Male circumcision and HIV prevention: Some science would not have gone amiss | journal = BMJ | volume = 321 | issue = 7274 | pages = 1467 | doi = | pmid = 11187941 | url = http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/321/7274/1467/a | format = | accessdate = 2008-10-16 | pmc = 1119176}}</ref> ? ? PMID 11187941: Comment, Letter
<ref name=Fleiss>{{cite journal | last = Fleiss | first = PM | authorlink = | coauthors = FM Hodges, RS Van Howe | year = 1998 | month = October | title = Immunological functions of the human prepuce | journal = Sexually Transmitted Infections | volume = 74 | issue = 5 | pages = 364–367 | doi =10.1136/sti.74.5.364 | pmid = 10195034 | url = http://sti.bmjjournals.com/cgi/reprint/74/5/364.pdf | format = PDF | accessdate = 2006-07-09 | pmc = 1758142}}</ref> ? ? PMID 10195034: Review
<ref>{{cite journal | title = Apocrine glands in inner prepuce doubtful | url=http://www.circs.org/library/waskett4/index.html | accessdate = 2006-07-09 | last = Waskett | first = Jake H. | date = June 20, 2005 | journal = Sex Trans Infect}}</ref> ? ?
<ref>{{cite journal | author=de Witte L, Nabatov A, Pion M, ''et al.'' | title=Langerin is a natural barrier to HIV-1 transmission by Langerhans cells | journal=Nature Medicine | volume=13 | issue=3 | pages=367–71 | year=2007 | month=March | pmid=17334373 | doi=10.1038/nm1541}}</ref> ? ? PMID 17334373: (unspecified, possibly primary)
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