Occupational health psychology

This is an old revision of this page, as edited by Mrm7171 (talk | contribs) at 15:06, 30 July 2014 (restoring the correct and valid edit made today by inediblehulk. You even delete other editor's work iss246. Wow! Have some respect for Misplaced Pages & other editors!`). The present address (URL) is a permanent link to this revision, which may differ significantly from the current revision.

Revision as of 15:06, 30 July 2014 by Mrm7171 (talk | contribs) (restoring the correct and valid edit made today by inediblehulk. You even delete other editor's work iss246. Wow! Have some respect for Misplaced Pages & other editors!`)(diff) ← Previous revision | Latest revision (diff) | Newer revision → (diff)

Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a discipline within psychology, promoted by the United States' National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health and American Psychological Association, that is concerned with the safety, health and well-being of workers. It emerged from two distinct applied psychology disciplines, health psychology and industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology, and has been informed by other disciplines including industrial sociology, industrial engineering, economics, preventive medicine, public health, and occupational health. OHP is concerned with psychosocial factors in the work environment and the development, maintenance, and promotion of employee health and that of their families. The field focuses on factors in the workplace that can lead to injury, disease, and distress.

It emerged from two distinct applied psychology disciplines, health psychology and industrial and organizational (I/O) psychology, and has been informed by other disciplines including industrial sociology, industrial engineering, economics, preventive medicine, public health, and occupational health. OHP is concerned with psychosocial factors in the work environment and the development, maintenance, and promotion of employee health and that of their families. The field focuses on factors in the workplace that can lead to injury, disease, and distress.

Historical overview

Origins

The Industrial Revolution prompted thinkers to concern themselves with the nature of work. For example, Marx's theory of alienation has been influential. Taylor's (1911) Principles of Scientific Management as well as Mayo’s research in the late 1920s and early 1930s on workers at the Hawthorne Western Electric plant helped to inject work and its impact on workers into the subject matter psychology addresses. The creation in 1948 of the Institute for Social Research (ISR) at the University of Michigan was important because of its research on occupational stress and employee health.

Research in the UK by Trist and Bamforth (1951) suggested the reduction in autonomy that accompanied organizational changes in English coal mining operations affected worker morale. Arthur Kornhauser’s work in the early 1960s on the mental health of automobile workers also contributed to the development of the field. A study by Gardell (1971) that examined the impact of work organization on mental health in Swedish pulp and paper mill workers and engineers. Research on the impact of unemployment on mental health, which was conducted at the University of Sheffield’s Institute of Work Psychology, also influenced OHP. In 1970 Kasl and Cobb documented the impact of unemployment on blood pressure.

Emergence as a field of study

The term "occupational health psychology" first appeared in print, and was discussed as a topic in psychology, from 1985, when Everly advocated for psychologists' role in health promotion in the workplace. Everly also described occupational health psychology at the time as a specialization within health psychology. In the 1980's, a dramatic increase in the number of stress-related worker's compensation claims helped to lead the NIOSH to list psychological factors as a "leading occupational health risk" in 1988. When this was coupled with an increased recognition of the impact of stress on a range of problems in the workplace, NIOSH found that their stress-related programs were significantly increasing in prominence. In 1990, Raymond et al. argued that the time has come for psychologists to get interdisciplinary training in "occupational health psychology," stating that creating healthy workplaces should be a goal for psychology, and that psychology doctoral training should be provided in work and health. This article stated that there is a viable role for occupational health psychologists trained at the doctoral level and that doctoral training would be based on the integration of health psychology and public health.

Development after 1990

In 1990, the APA and NIOSH jointly organized the first international Work, Stress, and Health conference in Washington, DC, the first major meeting in what would become a major OHP conference series. In 1996, the Journal of Occupational Health Psychology was published by APA. In 1999, the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology (EA-OHP) was established. That same year, the International Commission on Occupational Health created the Work Organisation and Psychosocial Factors (ICOH-WOPS) scientific committee, that focused primarily on OHP (p. 31).

In 2000 an informal International Coordinating Group for Occupational Health Psychology (ICGOHP) was formed as to facilitate the development of research, education, conferences, and practice of OHP through meetings at major conference events. In 2005, the Society for Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP) was founded in the United States. In 2000 Work & Stress, published by Taylor & Francis, became associated with the EA-OHP. In 2008, SOHP joined with APA and NIOSH in co-sponsoring the, by then, biennial Work, Stress, and Health conferences.

Research methods

Main article: List of psychological research methods

The main purpose of OHP research is to understand how working conditions affect worker health, as well as to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. The research methods used are similar to those used in other branches of psychology.

Standard research designs

Self-report survey methodology is the most used approach in OHP research. Cross-sectional designs are commonly used, case-control designs less often. Longitudinal designs including prospective cohort studies and experience sampling studies can examine relationships over time. Quasi-experimental designs and, less commonly, experimental approaches have been used.

Quantitative methods

Statistical methods commonly used in other areas of psychology are also used in OHP-related research. Statistical methods used include structural equation modeling and hierarchical linear modeling (HLM; also known as multilevel modeling). HLM can better adjust for similarities between employees and is especially well suited to evaluating the lagged impact of work stressors on health outcomes; in this research context HLM can help minimize censoring and is well-suited to experience sampling studies. Meta-analyses have been used to aggregate data (modern approaches to meta-analyses rely on HLM), and draw conclusions across multiple studies.

Qualitative research methods

Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, and self-reported, written descriptions of stressful incidents at work. First-hand observation of workers on the job has also been used, as has participant observation.

Research topics

Accidents and safety

Psychological factors are an important factor in Occupational accidents that can lead to injury and death of employees. An important influence on the incidence of accidents is the organization's safety climate that is employees' shared beliefs about how supervisors reward and support safety behavior.

Health behavior

Organizations can play a role in the health behavior of employees by providing resources to encourage exercise, nutrition, and smoking cessation.

Occupational stress and cardiovascular disease

Main articles: Occupational stress and Cardiovascular disease

A number of significant factors are related to increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD). These risk factors include smoking, obesity, low density lipoprotein (the "bad" cholesterol), lack of exercise, and blood pressure, among others. In a case-control study involving two large U.S. data sets, Murphy (1991) found that hazardous work situations, jobs that required vigilance and responsibility for others, and work that required attention to devices were related to increased risk for cardiovascular disability. These included jobs in transportation (e.g., air traffic controllers, airline pilots, bus drivers, locomotive engineers, truck drivers), preschool teachers, and craftsmen. Among 30 studies involving men and women, most have found an association between workplace stressors and CVD.

Job strain

According to the Demand-Control Model, job strain results from the combination of low work-related decision latitude and high workload. Fredikson, Sundin, and Frankenhaeuser (1985) found that reactions to psychological stressors include increased activity in the brain axes which play an important role in the regulation of blood pressure, particularly ambulatory blood pressure. A meta-analysis and systematic review involving 29 samples linked job strain to elevated ambulatory blood pressure. Belkić et al. (2000) found that many of the 30 studies covered in their review revealed that decision latitude and psychological workload exerted independent effects on CVD; two studies found synergistic effects, consistent with the strictest version of the strain model. A review of 17 longitudinal studies having reasonably high internal validity found that 8 showed a significant relation between job strain and CVD and 3 more showed a nonsignificant relation. The findings, however, were clearer for men than for women, on whom data were more sparse.

Musculoskeletal disorders

Main article: Musculoskeletal disorders

Approximately 2.5 million workers in the US suffer from musculoskeletal disorders, which is the third most common cause of disability and early retirement for American workers. In Europe MSDs are the most often reported workplace health problem. The development of musculoskelelatal problems cannot be solely explained in the basis of biomechanical factors (e.g., repetitive motion) although such factors contribute. There has been evidence that psychosocial workplace factors (e.g., job strain) also contribute to the development of these problems.

Effort-reward imbalance

An alternative model of job stress is the effort-reward imbalance model. That model holds that high work-related effort coupled with low control over job-related intrinsic (e.g., recognition) and extrinsic (e.g., pay) rewards triggers high levels of activation in neurohormonal pathways that, cumulatively, are thought to exert adverse effects on cardiovascular health. At least five studies of men have linked effort-reward imbalance with CVD.

Job loss

Research has suggested that job loss adversely affects cardiovascular health as well as health in general.

Burnout

Main articles: Burnout (psychology) and Occupational burnout

There is evidence from a prospective study that job-related burnout, controlling for traditional risk factors such as smoking, blood pressure, etc., increases the risk of coronary heart disease over the course of the next three and a half years in workers who were initially disease-free.

Mental disorder

Alcohol abuse

Main article: Alcohol abuse

Another study based on cross-sectional ECA data found high rates of alcohol abuse and dependence in the construction and transportation industries as well as among waiters and waitresses, controlling for sociodemographic factors. Within the transportation sector, heavy truck drivers and material movers were at especially high risk. A prospective study of ECA subjects who were followed one year after the initial interviews provided data on newly incident cases of alcohol abuse and dependence. This study found that workers in jobs that combined low control with high physical demands were at increased risk of developing alcohol problems although the findings were confined to men.

Depression

Main article: Major depressive disorder

Using data from the ECA study, Eaton, Anthony, Mandel, and Garrison (1990) concluded that members of three occupational groups, lawyers, secretaries, and special education teachers (but not other types of teachers) showed elevated rates of DSM-III major depression, adjusting for social demographic factors. The ECA study involved representative samples of American adults from five U.S. geographical areas, providing relatively unbiased estimates of the risk of mental disorder by occupation; however, because the data were cross-sectional, no conclusions bearing on cause-and-effect relations are warranted. Evidence from a Canadian prospective study indicated that individuals in the highest quartile of occupational stress are at increased risk of experiencing an episode of major depression. A meta-analysis that pooled the results of 11 well-designed longitudinal studies indicated that a number of facets of the psychosocial work environment (e.g., low decision latitude, high psychological workload, lack of social support at work, effort-reward imbalance, and job insecurity) increase the risk of common mental disorders such as depression.

Personality disorders

Main article: Personality disorder § In the workplace

Depending on the diagnosis, severity and individual, and the job itself, personality disorders can be associated with difficulty coping with work or the workplace, potentially leading to problems with others by interfering with interpersonal relationships. Indirect effects also play a role; for example, impaired educational progress or complications outside of work, such as substance abuse and co-morbid mental disorders, can plague sufferers. However, personality disorders can also bring about above-average work abilities by increasing competitive drive or causing the sufferer to exploit his or her co-workers.

Schizophrenia

Main article: Schizophrenia

In a case-control study, Link, Dohrenwend, and Skodol found that, compared to depressed and well control subjects, schizophrenic patients were more likely to have had jobs, prior to their first episode of the disorder, that exposed them to “noisesome” work characteristics (e.g., noise, humidity, heat, cold, etc.). The jobs tended to be of higher status than other blue collar jobs, suggesting that downward drift in already-affected individuals does not account for the finding. One explanation involving a diathesis-stress model suggests that the job-related stressors helped precipitate the first episode in already-vulnerable individuals. There is some supporting evidence from the Epidemiologic Catchment Area (ECA) study.

Psychological distress

Main article: Psychological distress

A number of longitudinal studies have suggested adverse working conditions can contribute to the development of psychological distress. Psychological distress refers to negative affect, without the individuals necessarily meeting criteria for a psychiatric disorder. Psychological distress is often expressed in affective (depressive), psychophysical or psychosomatic (e.g., headaches, stomach aches, etc.), and anxiety symptoms. The relation of adverse working conditions to psychological distress is thus an important avenue of research. Job satisfaction is also related to negative health outcomes.

Working conditions

Parkes (1982) studied the relation of working conditions to psychological distress in British student nurses. She found that in this "natural experiment," student nurses experienced higher levels of distress and lower levels of job satisfaction in medical wards than in surgical wards; compared to surgical wards, medical wards make greater affective demands on the nurses. In another study, Frese (1985) concluded that objective working conditions give rise to subjective stress and psychosomatic symptoms in blue collar German workers. In addition to the above studies, a number of other well-controlled longitudinal studies have implicated work stressors in the development of psychological distress and reduced job satisfaction.

Economic insecurity

Some researchers in occupational health psychology are concerned with (a) understanding the impact of economic crises on individuals' physical and mental health and well-being and (b) calling attention to personal and organizational means for ameliorating the impact of the crisis. Ongoing job insecurity, even in the absence of job loss, is related to higher levels of depressive symptoms, psychological distress, and worse overall health.

Work and Family

Employees must balance their working lives with their home lives. Work–family conflict is a situation in which the demands of work (family) conflict with the demands of family (work), making it difficult to adequately do both.

Workplace interventions

Industrial organizations

OHP interventions often concern both the health of the individual and the health of the organization. Adkins (1999) described the development of one such intervention, an organizational health center (OHC) at a California industrial complex. The OHC helped to improve both organizational and individual health as well as help workers manage job stress. Innovations included labor-management partnerships, suicide risk reduction, conflict mediation, and occupational mental health support. OHC practitioners also coordinated their services with previously underutilized local community services in the same city, thus reducing redundancy in service delivery.

Hugentobler, Israel, and Schurman (1992) detailed a different, multi-layered intervention in a mid-sized Michigan manufacturing plant. The hub of the intervention was the Stress and Wellness Committee (SWC) which solicited ideas from workers on ways to improve both their well-being and productivity. Innovations the SWC developed included improvements that ensured two-way communication between workers and management and reduction in stress resulting from diminished conflict over issues of quantity versus quality. Both the interventions described by Adkins and Hugentobler et al. had a positive impact on productivity.

National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health's work

Currently there are efforts under way at NIOSH to help reduce the incidence of preventable disorders (e.g., sleep apnea) among heavy-truck and tractor-trailer drivers and, concomitantly, the life-threatening accidents to which the disorders lead, improve the health and safety of workers who are assigned to shift work or who work long hours, and reduce the incidence of falls among iron workers.

Military and first responders

The Mental Health Advisory Teams of the United States Army employ OHP-related interventions with combat troops. OHP also has a role to play in interventions aimed at helping first responders.

Modestly scaled interventions

Schmitt (2007) described three different modestly scaled OHP-related interventions that helped workers abstain from smoking, exercise more frequently, and shed weight. Other OHP interventions include a campaign to improve the rates of hand washing, an effort to get workers to walk more often, and a drive to get employees to be more compliant with regard to taking prescribed medicines. The interventions tended reduce organization health-care costs.

Workplace mistreatment

There are many forms of workplace mistreatment ranging from relatively minor incivility to serious cases of bullying.

Abusive supervision

Abusive supervision is the extent to which a supervisor engages in a pattern of behavior that harms subordinates.

Workplace bullying

Although definitions of workplace bullying vary, it involves a repeated pattern of harmful behaviors directed toward and individual.

Workplace incivility

Workplace incivility has been defined as "low-intensity deviant behavior with ambiguous intent to harm the target....Uncivil behaviors are characteristically rude and discourteous, displaying a lack of regard for others" (p. 457) Incivility is distinct from violence. Examples of workplace incivility include insulting comments, denigration of the target's work, spreading false rumors, social isolation, etc. A summary of research conducted in Europe suggests that workplace incivility is common there. In research on more than 1000 U. S. civil service workers, more than 70% of the sample experienced workplace incivility in the past five years. Compared to men, women were more exposed to incivility; incivility was associated with psychological distress and reduced job satisfaction.

Sexual harassment

Sexual harassment is behavior that denigrates or mistreats an individual due to his or her gender, creates an offensive workplace, and interferes with an individual being able to do the job.

Workplace violence

Main articles: Workplace violence and Workplace aggression

Workplace violence is a significant health hazard for employees.

Homicide

In 1996 there were 927 work-associated homicides in the United States, in a labor force that numbered approximately 132,616,000. The rate works out to be about 7 homicides per million workers for the one year. Men are more likely to be victims of workplace homicide than women.

Nonfatal assault

The vast majority of workplace assaults are nonfatal, with an annual physical assault rate of 6% in the U.S. workforce. Assaultive behavior in the workplace often produces injury, psychological distress, and economic loss. One study of California workers found a rate of 72.9 non-fatal, officially documented assaults per 100,000 workers per year, with workers in the education, retail, and health care sectors subject to excess risk. A Minnesota workers' compensation study found that women workers had a twofold higher risk of being injured in an assault than men, and health and social service workers, transit workers, and members of the education sector were at high risk for injury compared to workers in other economic sectors. A West Virginia workers' compensation study found that workers in the health care sector and, to a lesser extent, the education sector were at elevated risk for assault-related injury. Another workers' compensation study found that excessively high rates of assault-related injury in schools, healthcare, and, to a lesser extent, banking. In addition to the physical injury that results from being a victim of workplace violence, individuals who witness such violence without being directly victimized are at increased risk for experiencing adverse effects, as found in a study of Los Angeles teachers.

Curbing or preventing

Although the dimensions of the problem of workplace violence vary by economic sector, one sector, education, has had some limited success in introducing programmatic, psychologically-based efforts to reduce the level of violence. Research suggests that there continue to be difficulties in successfully "screening out applicants who may be prone to engaging in aggressive behavior," suggesting that aggression-prevention training of existing employees may be an alternative to screening. Only a small number of studies evaluating the effectiveness of training programs to reduce workplace violence currently exist.

References

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Occupational Health Psychology (OHP). Accessed July 9, 2013
Society for Occupational Health Psychology. Field of OHP. What is occupational health psychology http://sohp.psy.uconn.edu/field.htm Accessed September 22, 2013
^ Tetrick, L. E., & Quick, J. C. (2011). Overview of occupational health psychology: Public health in occupational settings. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Handbook of occupational health psychology, 2nd ed. (pp. 3-20). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
^ Everly, G. S., Jr. (1986). An introduction to occupational health psychology. In P. A. Keller & L. G. Ritt (Eds.), Innovations in clinical practice: A source book, Vol. 5 (pp. 331-338). Sarasota, FL: Professional Resource Exchange.
^ Leka, S., and Houdmont, J. (Ed’s) (2010). Occupational health psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell
Society for Occupational Health Psychology. Field of OHP. What is occupational health psychology http://sohp.psy.uconn.edu/field.htm Accessed September 22, 2013
Marx, K. (1967/1845). The German ideology. In L. D. Easton & K. H. L. Guddat (Eds. and Trans.), Writings of the young Marx on philosophy and society. Garden City, NY: Doubleday.
Taylor, F. W. (1911). The principles of scientific management. Norwood, MA: The Plimpton Press.
^ Christie, A., & Barling, J. (2011). A short history of occupational health psychology: A biographical approach. In C. Cooper and A. Antoniou (Eds.), New directions in organizational psychology and behavioural medicine, (pp. 7-24). Washington, DC: Gower Publishing.
Mayo, E. (1933) The human problems of an industrial civilization. New York: MacMillan.
Quinn, R.P. et al. (1971). Survey of working conditions: Final report on univariate and bivariate tables, Document No. 2916-0001. Washington, DC: U. S. Government Printing Office.
House, J.S. (1980). Occupational stress and the mental and physical health of factory workers. Ann Arbor: Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan.
Caplan, R. D., Cobb, S., & French, J. R. P., Jr. (1975). Relationships of cessation of smoking with job stress, personality, and social support. Journal of Applied Psychology, 60, 211-219.
Trist, E. L., & Bamforth, K. W. (1951). Some social and psychological consequences of the longwall method of coal getting. Human Relations, 14, 3-38.
Kornhauser, A. (1965). Mental health of the industrial worker. New York: Wiley.
Christie, A. & Barling, J. (2011). A short history of occupational health psychology: A biographical approach. In C. Cooper & A. Antoniou (Eds.), New directions in organizational psychology and behavioral medicine (pp. 7-24). Washington, DC: Gower Publishing.
Zickar, M.J. (2003). Remembering Arthur Kornhauser: Industrial psychology’s advocate for worker well-being. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(2), 363–369.
Gardell, B. (1971). Alienation and mental health in the modern industrial environment. In L. Levi (Ed.), Society, stress and disease, vol. 1 (pp. 148-180). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
^ Kasl, S. V., & Cobb, S. (1970). Blood pressure changes in men undergoing job loss: A preliminary report. Psychosomatic Medicine, 32, 19-38.
Feldman, R. H. L. (1985). Promoting occupational safety and health. G. Everly and R.H.L. Feldman (Eds.). Occupational health promotion: Health behavior in the workplace (pp. 188-207). New York: Wiley.
^ Sauter SL; Hurrel JJ Jr; Fox HR; Tetrick LE; Barling J. (1999) "Occupational health psychology: an emerging discipline". Industrial Health, 37(2). p201.
"Milestones in the history of occupational health psychology", (February 2002). Monitor on Psychology, American Psychological Association. 33(2). Retrieved July 28, 2014.
^ Raymond, J.S., Wood, D., & Patrick, W.K. (1990). Psychology doctoral training in work and health. American Psychologist, 45, 1159-1161.
^ Barling, J., & Griffiths, A. (2011). A history of occupational health psychology. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick. Handbook of occupational health psychology (2nd ed., pp. 21-34). Washington DC, American Psychological Association.
Houdmont, J. (2009). Across the pond: A history of the European Academy of Occupational Health Psychology. Newsletter of the Society of Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 4-5.
http://mental.m.u-tokyo.ac.jp/wops/
http://www.icohweb.org/site_new/ico_scientific_committees.asp
Hammer, L. B., & Schonfeld, I. S. (2007). The historical development of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology (SOHP). Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 2.
"Work & Stress comes of age: Twenty years of occupational health psychology". Work & Stress. 20: 1–5. 2006. doi:10.1080/02678370600739795.
http://www.apa.org/news/press/releases/2008/03/wsh-conference.aspx
Hammer, L. B., Sauter, S., & Limanowski (2008) Work, stress, and health 2008. Society for Occupational Health Psychology Newsletter, 2, p. 2.
Kasl, S. V., & Jones, B. A. (2011). An epidemiological perspective on research design, measurement, and surveillance strategies. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Handbook of occupational health psychology, 2nd ed. (pp. 375-394). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Adkins, J. A., Kelley, S. D., Bickman, L., & Weiss, H. M. (2011). Program evaluation: The bottom line in organizational health. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Handbook of occupational health psychology, 2nd ed. (pp. 395-415). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Eatough, E. M., & Spector P. E. (2013). Quantitative self-report methods in occupational health psychology research (pp. 248-267). In R. R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Research methods in occupational health psychology. New York: Routledge.
Warren, N., Dillon, C., Morse, T., Hall, C., & Warren, A. (2000). Biomechanical, psychosocial, and organizational risk factors for WRMSD: Population-based estimates from the Connecticut Upper-extremity Surveillance Project (CUSP). Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 164-181.
Kelloway, E. K., & Francis, L. (2013). Longitudinal research and data analysis. In R. R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Research methods in occupational health psychology (pp. 374-394). New York: Routledge.
Sonnentag, S., Binnewies, C., & Ohly, S. (2013). Event-sampling methods in occupational health psychology. In R. R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Research methods in occupational health psychology (pp. 208-228). New York: Routledge.
^ Stansfeld, S., & Candy, B. (2006). Psychosocial work environment and mental health--a meta-analytic review. Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment & Health, 32 (special issue 6), 443-462.
Clarkson, G.P., & Hodgkinson, G.P. (2007). What can occupational stress diaries achieve that questionnaires can’t? Personnel Review, 5, 684-700.
Bond, F.W., & Bunce, D. (2001). Job control mediates change in a work reorganization intervention for stress reduction. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 290-302.
Chen, P. Y., Cigularov, K. P., & Menger, L. M. (2013). Experimental and quasi-experimental designs in occupational health psychology. In R. R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Research methods in occupational health psychology (pp. 180-207). New York: Routledge.
Flaxman, P.E., & Bond, F.W. (2010). Worksite stress management training: Moderated effects and clinical significance. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15, 347-358.
Taris, T. W., de Lange, A. H., & Kompier, M. A. J. (2010). Research methods in occupational health psychology. In S. Leka & J. Houdmont (Eds.), Occupational health psychology. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Hayduk, L.A. (1987). Structural equations modeling with lisrel. Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press.
^ Raudenbush, S. W., & Bryk, A. S. (2001). Hierarchical linear models: Applications and data analysis methods (2nd ed.). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Schonfeld, I.S., & Rindskopf, D. (2007). Hierarchical linear modeling in organizational research: Longitudinal data outside the context of growth modeling. Organizational Research Methods, 18, 417-429.
O'Driscoll, M. P., & Cooper, C. L. (1994). Coping with work-related stress: A critique of existing measures and proposal for an alternative methodology. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 67, 343-354.
Dewe, P. J. (1989). Examining the nature of work stress: Individual evaluations of stressful experiences and coping. Human Relations, 42, 993-1013.
Kidd, P., Scharf, T., & Veazie, M. (1996) Linking stress and injury in the farming environment: A secondary analysis. Health Education Quarterly, 23, 224-237.
Keenan, A., & Newton, T. J. (1985). Stressful events, stressors and psychological strains in young professional engineers. Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 6, 151-156.
Schonfeld, I. S., & Mazzola, J. J. (2013). Strengths and limitations of qualitative approaches to research in occupational health psychology (pp. 268-289). In R. R. Sinclair, M. Wang, & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.) Research methods in occupational health psychology. New York: Routledge.
Kainan, A. (1994). Staffroom grumblings as expressed teachers' vocation. Teaching and Teachers Education, 10, 281-290.
Palmer, C. E. (1983). A note about paramedics' strategies for dealing with death and dying. Journal of Occupational Psychology, 56, 83-86.
Zohar, D. (2010). Thirty years of safety climate research: Reflections and future directions. Accident Analysis and Prevention, 42(5), 1517-1522.
Murphy, L. R. (1991). Job dimensions associated with severe disability due to cardiovascular disease. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 44, 155-166.
Belkić, K., et al. (2000). Psychosocial factors: Review of the empirical data among men. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 15, 24-46.
Brisson, C. (2000). Women, work, and cardiovascular disease. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 15, 49-57.
Karasek, R. A. (1979). Job demands, job decision latitude, and mental strain: Implications for job redesign. Administrative Science Quarterly, 24, 285-307.
Fredrikson M., Sundin O., & Frankenhaeuser M. (1985). Cortisol excretion during the defence reaction in humans. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 313-319.
DeQuattro, V., & Hamad, R. (1985). The role of stress and the sympathetic nervous system in hypertension and ischemic heart disease: advantages of therapy with beta-receptor blockers. Clinical And Experimental Hypertension. Part A, Theory And Practice, 7(7), 907-932.
Landsbergis, P., Dobson, M., Koutsouras, G., & Schnall, P. (2013). Job strain and ambulatory blood pressure: a meta-analysis and systematic review. American Journal of Public Health, 103(3), e61-e71. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2012.301153
Belkić, K., et al. (2000). Psychosocial factors: Review of the empirical data among men. Occupational Medicine: State of the Art Reviews, 15, 24-46.
Hallqvist, J., Diderichsen, F., Theorell, T., Reuterwall, C., & Ahlbom, A. (1998). Is the effect of job strain on myocardial infarction risk due to interaction between high psychological demands and low decision latitude? Results from Stockholm Heart Epidemiology Program (SHEEP). Social Science & Medicine, 46(11), 1405-1415.
Johnson, J. V., & Hall, E. M. (1988). Job strain, workplace social support, and cardiovascular disease: A cross-sectional study of a random sample of the Swedish working population. American Journal of Public Health, 78, 1336-1342.
Belkic, K. L., Landsbergis, P. A., Schnall, P. L., & Baker, D. (2004). Is job strain a source of major cardiovascular risk? Scandinavian Journal of Work, Environment, and Health, 30(2), 85-128.
Social Security Administration. (2012). Annual statistical report on the Social Security Disability Insurance Program, 2011. Washington, DC: Author.
Sprigg, C. A., Stride, C. B., Wall, T. D., Holman, D. J., & Smith, P. R. (2007). Work characteristics, musculoskeletal disorders, and the mediating role of psychological strain: A study of call center employees. Journal of Applied Psychology, 92(5), 1456-1466.
Hauke, A., Flintrop, J., Brun, E., & Rugulies, R. (2011). The impact of work-related psychosocial stressors on the onset of musculoskeletal disorders in specific body regions: A review and meta-analysis of 54 longitudinal studies. Work & Stress, 25(3), 243-256. doi: 10.1080/02678373.2011.614069
^ Bigos, S., Battié, M., Spengler, D., Fisher, L., Fordyce, W., Hansson, T., & ... Wortley, M. (1991). A prospective study of work perceptions and psychosocial factors affecting the report of back injury. Spine, 16(1), 1-6.
Theorell, T., Hasselhorn, H., Vingård, E., & Andersson, B. (2000). Interleukin 6 and cortisol in acute musculoskeletal disorders: Results from a case-referent study in Sweden. Stress Medicine, 16(1), 27-35. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1099-1700(200001)16:1<27::AID-SMI829>3.0.CO;2-#
Mäntyniemi, A., Oksanen, T., Salo, P., Virtanen, M., Sjösten, N., Pentti, J., & ... Vahtera, J. (2012). Job strain and the risk of disability pension due to musculoskeletal disorders, depression or coronary heart disease: A prospective cohort study of 69,842 employees. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 69(8), 574-581. doi:10.1136/oemed-2011-100411
Siegrist, J., & Peter, R. (1994). Job stressors and coping characteristics in work-related disease: Issues of validity. Work & Stress, 8(2), 130-140.
Landsbergis, P., et al. (2003). The workplace and cardiovascular disease: Relevance and potential role for occupational health psychology. In J. C. Quick & L. E. Tetrick (Eds.), Handbook of occupational health psychology (pp. 265-287). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Gallo, W.T., Teng, H.M., Falba, T.A., Kasl, S.V., Krumholz, H.M., & Bradley, E.H. (2006). The impact of late career job loss on myocardial infarction and stroke: A 10 year follow up using the health and retirement survey. Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 63, 683-687.
Strully, K.W. (2009). Job loss and health in the U.S. labor market. Demography, 46, 221-246.
Gallo, W. T. (2010). Involuntary job loss and health: My path to job loss research. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 17, 20.
Toker, S., Melamed, S., Berliner, S., Zeltser, D., & Shapira, I. (2012). Burnout and risk of coronary heart disease: a prospective study of 8838 employees. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(8), 840-847. doi:10.1097/PSY.0b013e31826c3174
Mandell W., Eaton, W. W., Anthony, J. C., & Garrison, R. (1992). Alcoholism and occupations: a review and analysis of 104 occupations. Alcoholism, Clinical And Experimental Research, 16, 734-746.
Crum, R. M., Muntaner. C., Eaton. W. W., & Anthony. J. C. (1995). Occupational stress and the risk of alcohol abuse and dependence. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 19, 647-655.
Eaton, W. W., Anthony, J.C., Mandel, W., & Garrison, R. (1990). Occupations and the prevalence of major depressive disorder. Journal Of Occupational Medicine, 32, 1079-1087.
Wang J. (2005). Work stress as a risk factor for major depressive episode(s). Psychological Medicine, 35, 865-871.
Ettner, S.L. (2011). Personality disorders and Work. In Schultz and Rogers (Eds.), Work accommodation and retention in mental health (pp. 163-188). New York: Springer. doi:10.1007978-1-4419-0428-9_9
Ettner, S.L., Maclean, J.C., & French, M.T. (2011). Does having a dysfunctional personality hurt your career? Axis II personality disorders and labor market outcomes. Industrial Relations, 50(1), 149–173. doi:10.1111/j.1468-232X.2010.00629.x
Link, B. G., Dohrenwend, B. P., & Skodol, A. E. (1986). Socio-economic status and schizophrenia: Noisome occupational characteristics as a risk factor. American Sociological Review, 51, 242-258.
Muntaner, C., Tien, A. Y., Eaton, W. W., & Garrison R. (1991). Occupational characteristics and the occurrence of psychotic disorders. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 26, 273-280.
Dohrenwend, B. P., Shrout, P. E., Egri, G., & Mendelsohn, F. S. (1980). Nonspecific psychological distress and other dimensions of psychopathology: Measures for use in the general population. Archives of General Psychiatry, 37, 1229-1236.
Frank, J. D. (1973). Persuasion and healing. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins Press.
Greenberg, E. S., & Grunberg, L. (1995). Work alienation and problem alcohol behavior. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 36, 83-102.
House, J. S. (1974). Occupational stress and coronary heart disease: A review and theoretical integration. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 15, 12-27.
Parkes, K. R. (1982). Occupational stress among student nurses: A natural experiment. Journal of Applied Psychology, 67, 784-796.
Frese, M. (1985). Stress at work and psychosomatic complaints: A causal interpretation. Journal of Applied Psychology, 70, 314-328.
Carayon, P. (1992). A longitudinal study of job design and worker strain: Preliminary results. In J.C. Quick, L.R. Murphy, and J.J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds.), Work and well-being: Assessments and instruments for occupational mental health (pp. 19-32). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Dormann, C., & Zapf, D. (2002). Social stressors at work, irritation, and depressive symptoms: Accounting for unmeasured third variables in a multi-wave study. Journal of Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 75, 33-58.
Probst, T. M., & Sears, L. E. (2009). Stress during the financial crisis. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 3-4.
Burgard, S.A., Brand, J.E., & House, J.S. (2009). Perceived job insecurity and worker health in the United States. Social Science & Medicine, 69, 777-785.
Greenhaus, J. H., & Beutell, N. J. (1985). Sources and conflict between work and family roles. Academy of Management Review, 10(1), 76-88.
Adkins, J. A. (1999). Promoting organizational health: The evolving practice of occupational health psychology. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 30, 129 137.
Hugentobler, M. K., Israel, B. A., & Schurman, S. J. (1992). An action research approach to workplace health: Integrating methods. Health Education Quarterly, 19, 55-76.
Hitchcock, E. (2008). NIOSH OHP activities. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 3, 10.
Caruso, C. (2009). NIOSH OHP activities: Training products for workers who are assigned to shift work or work long work hours. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 5, 16-17.
Scharf, T., Hunt, J., III, McCann, M., Pierson, R., Migliaccio, F., Limanowski, J., et al. (2010). Hazard recognition for ironworkers: Preventing falls and close calls. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 9, 8-9.
Thomas, J. L. (2008). OHP Research and Practice in the US Army: Mental Health Advisory Teams. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 4-5.
Genderson, M.R., Schonfeld, I.S., Kaplan, M.S., & Lyons, M.J. (2009).Suicide associated with military service. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 5-7.
Katz, C. (2008). Mental health of 9/11 responders. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 4, 2-3.
Arnetz, B. (2009). Low-intensity stress in high-stress professionals. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 6-7.
^ Schmitt, L. (2007). OHP interventions: Wellness programs. Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 1, 4-5.
^ Schmitt, L. (2008). OHP interventions: Wellness programs (Part 2). Newsletter of the Society for Occupational Health Psychology, 2, 6-7.
Tepper, B. J. (2000). "Consequences of abusive supervision". Academy of Management Journal, 43(2), 178-190. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1556375
Rayner, C., & Keashly, L. (2005). Bullying at Work: A Perspective From Britain and North America. In S. Fox & P. E. Spector (Eds.), Counterproductive work behavior: Investigations of actors and targets. (pp. 271-296). Washington, DC, US: American Psychological Association.
Andersson, L. M., & Pearson, C. M. (1999). Tit for tat? The spiraling effect of incivility in the workplace. Academy of Management Review, 24, 452-471.
^ Cortina, L. M., Magley, V., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6, 64 80.
Rospenda, K. M., & Richman, J. A. (2005). Harassment and discrimination. In J. Barling, E. K. Kelloway & M. R. Frone (Eds.), Handbook of work stress (pp. 149-188). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2004). 1992-2001 Census of fatal occupational injuries (CFOI) Revised data. Washington, DC: U. S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2004). Civilian labor force (seasonally adjusted)(LNS11000000). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
^ LaMar W. J., Gerberich, S. G., Lohman, W. H., Zaidman, B. (1998). Work-related physical assault. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 40, 317-324.
Schat, A. C. H., Frone, M. R., & Kelloway, E. K. (2006). Prevalence of workplace aggression in the U.S. workforce. In E. K. Kelloway, J. Barling, & J. J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds.) Handbook of workplace violence (pp. 47-89). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Peek Asa, C., Howard, J., Vargas, L., Kraus, J. F. (1997). Incidence of non-fatal workplace assault injuries determined from employer's reports in California. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 39, 44-50.
Islam, S. S., Edla, S. R., Mujuru, P., Doyle, E. .J., & Ducatman, A. M. (2003). Risk factors for physical assault. State managed workers' compensation experience. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 25, 31-37.
Hashemi, L., & Webster, B. S. (1998). Non-fatal workplace violence workers' compensation claims (1993 1996). Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine, 40, 561-567.
Bloch, A. M. (1978). Combat neurosis in inner-city schools. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1189–1192.
Schonfeld, I.S. (2006). School violence. In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, & J.J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds). Handbook of workplace violence (pp. 169-229). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Day, A. L, & Catano, V. M. (2006) Screening and selecting out violent employees. In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, & J.J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds). Handbook of workplace violence (pp. 549-577). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Schat, A. C. H., & Kelloway, E. K. (2006). Training as a workplace aggression intervention strategy. In E.K. Kelloway, J. Barling, & J.J. Hurrell, Jr. (Eds). Handbook of workplace violence (pp. 579-605). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

External links

Occupational safety and health

Occupational
diseases
and injuries

Occupational
hygiene

Professions

Agencies and
organizations

International	European Agency for Safety and Health at Work International Labour Organization World Health Organization
National	Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (Canada) Istituto nazionale per l'assicurazione contro gli infortuni sul lavoro (Italy) National Institute for Safety and Health at Work (Spain) Health and Safety Executive (UK) Occupational Safety and Health Administration National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (US)

Standards

Safety

Legislation

v t e Employment
Classifications	Academic tenure Casual Contingent work Full-time job Gig worker Job sharing Part-time job Self-employment Side job Skilled worker Journeyman Technician Tradesperson Independent contractor Labour hire Temporary work Laborer Wage labour
Hiring	Application Background check Business networking Cover letter Curriculum vitae Drug testing Employment contract Employment counsellor Executive search list Induction programme Job fair Job fraud Job hunting Job interview Letter of recommendation Onboarding Overqualification Person–environment fit Personality–job fit theory Personality hire Probation Realistic job preview Recruitment Résumé Simultaneous recruiting of new graduates Underemployment Work-at-home scheme
Roles	Cooperative Employee Employer Internship Job Labour hire Permanent employment Supervisor Volunteering
Working class	Blue-collar Green-collar Grey-collar Pink-collar Precariat White-collar Red-collar New-collar No-collar Orange-collar Scarlet-collar Black-collar Gold-collar
Career and training	Apprenticeship Artisan Master craftsman Avocation Career assessment Career counseling Career development Coaching Creative class Education Continuing education E-learning Employability Further education Graduate school Induction training Knowledge worker Licensure Lifelong learning Overspecialization Practice-based professional learning Professional association Professional certification Professional development Professional school Reflective practice Retraining Vocational education Vocational school Vocational university Mentorship Occupational Outlook Handbook Practice firm Profession Operator Professional Tradesman Vocation
Attendance	Break Break room Career break Furlough Gap year Leave of absence Long service leave No call, no show Sabbatical Sick leave Time clock
Schedules	35-hour workweek Four-day week Eight-hour day 996 working hour system Flextime On-call Overtime Remote work Six-hour day Shift work Working time Workweek and weekend
Wages and salaries	Income bracket Income tax Living wage Maximum wage National average salary World Europe Minimum wage Canada Hong Kong Europe United States Progressive wage Singapore Overtime rate Paid time off Performance-related pay Salary cap Wage compression Working poor
Benefits	Annual leave Casual Friday Child care Disability insurance Health insurance Life insurance Marriage leave Parental leave Pension Sick leave United States Take-home vehicle
Safety and health	Crunch Epilepsy and employment Human factors and ergonomics Karoshi List of countries by rate of fatal workplace accidents Occupational burnout Occupational disease Occupational exposure limit Occupational health psychology Occupational injury Occupational noise Occupational stress Personal protective equipment Repetitive strain injury Right to sit United States Sick building syndrome Work accident Occupational fatality Workers' compensation Workers' right to access the toilet Workplace health promotion Workplace phobia Workplace wellness
Equal opportunity	Affirmative action Equal pay for equal work Gender pay gap Glass ceiling
Infractions	Corporate collapses and scandals Accounting scandals Control fraud Corporate behaviour Corporate crime Discrimination Exploitation of labour Dress code Employee handbook Employee monitoring Evaluation Labour law Sexual harassment Sleeping while on duty Wage theft Whistleblower Workplace bullying Workplace harassment Workplace incivility
Willingness	Boreout Careerism Civil conscription Conscription Critique of work Dead-end job Job satisfaction McJob Organizational commitment Refusal of work Slavery Bonded labour Human trafficking Labour camp Penal labour Peonage Truck wages Unfree labour Wage slavery Work ethic Work–life interface Downshifting Slow living Workaholic
Termination	At-will employment Dismissal Banishment room Constructive dismissal Wrongful dismissal Employee offboarding Exit interview Layoff Notice period Pink slip Resignation Letter of resignation Restructuring Retirement Mandatory retirement Retirement age Retirement planning Severance package Golden handshake Golden parachute Turnover
Unemployment	Barriers to entry Discouraged worker Economic depression Great Depression Long Depression Frictional unemployment Full employment Graduate unemployment Involuntary unemployment Jobless recovery Phillips curve Recession Great Recession Job losses caused by the Great Recession Lists of recessions Recession-proof job Reserve army of labour Structural unemployment Technological unemployment Types of unemployment Unemployment benefits Unemployment Convention, 1919 Unemployment extension List of countries by unemployment rate Employment-to-population ratio List Wage curve Youth unemployment
Public programs	Workfare Unemployment insurance Make-work job Job creation program Job creation index Job guarantee Employer of last resort Guaranteed minimum income Right to work Historical: U.S.A.: Civil Works Administration Works Progress Administration Comprehensive Employment and Training Act
See also	Bullshit job Busy work Credentialism and educational inflation Emotional labor Evil corporation Going postal Kiss up kick down Labor rights Make-work job Narcissism in the workplace Post-work society Presenteeism Psychopathy in the workplace Sunday scaries Slow movement (culture) Toxic leader Toxic workplace Workhouse
See also templates Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of occupations Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Corporate titles Critique of work Organized labor

v t e Psychology
History Philosophy Portal Psychologist
Basic psychology	Abnormal Affective neuroscience Affective science Behavioral genetics Behavioral neuroscience Behaviorism Cognitive/Cognitivism Cognitive neuroscience Social Comparative Cross-cultural Cultural Developmental Differential Ecological Evolutionary Experimental Gestalt Intelligence Mathematical Moral Neuropsychology Perception Personality Psycholinguistics Psychophysiology Quantitative Social Theoretical
Applied psychology	Anomalistic Applied behavior analysis Assessment Clinical Coaching Community Consumer Counseling Critical Educational Ergonomics Feminist Forensic Health Humanistic Industrial and organizational Legal Media Medical Military Music Occupational health Pastoral Political Positive Psychometrics Psychotherapy Religion School Sport and exercise Suicidology Systems Traffic
Methodologies	Animal testing Archival research Behavior epigenetics Case study Content analysis Experiments Human subject research Interviews Neuroimaging Observation Psychophysics Qualitative research Quantitative research Self-report inventory Statistical surveys
Concepts	Behavior Behavioral engineering Behavioral genetics Behavioral neuroscience Cognition Competence Consciousness Consumer behavior Emotions Feelings Human factors and ergonomics Intelligence Mind Psychology of religion Psychometrics Terror management theory
Psychologists	Wilhelm Wundt William James Ivan Pavlov Sigmund Freud Edward Thorndike Carl Jung John B. Watson Clark L. Hull Kurt Lewin Jean Piaget Gordon Allport J. P. Guilford Carl Rogers Erik Erikson B. F. Skinner Donald O. Hebb Ernest Hilgard Harry Harlow Raymond Cattell Abraham Maslow Neal E. Miller Jerome Bruner Donald T. Campbell Hans Eysenck Herbert A. Simon David McClelland Leon Festinger George A. Miller Richard Lazarus Stanley Schachter Robert Zajonc Albert Bandura Roger Brown Endel Tulving Lawrence Kohlberg Noam Chomsky Ulric Neisser Jerome Kagan Walter Mischel Elliot Aronson Daniel Kahneman Paul Ekman Michael Posner Amos Tversky Bruce McEwen Larry Squire Richard E. Nisbett Martin Seligman Ed Diener Shelley E. Taylor John Anderson Ronald C. Kessler Joseph E. LeDoux Richard Davidson Susan Fiske Roy Baumeister
Lists	Counseling topics Disciplines Organizations Outline Psychologists Psychotherapies Research methods Schools of thought Timeline Topics
Wiktionary definition Wiktionary category Wikisource Wikimedia Commons Wikiquote Wikinews Wikibooks

v t e Aspects of occupations
Apartheid Asthma Burnout Closure Crime Disease Fatality Hygiene Inequality Injury Injustice Medicine Prestige Psychology Psychosis Rehabilitation Repetitive strain injury Safety and health Science Stress Therapist Therapy Therapy in the United Kingdom
See also templates Aspects of corporations Aspects of jobs Aspects of organizations Aspects of workplaces Occupational safety and health Employment