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Islamophobia is a neologism with no agreed definition. For example, the 2003 edition of the New Oxford Dictionary of English refers to Islamophobia as "hatred or fear of Islam or Muslims, especially as a political force" while Princeton University's "Word Net" defines Islamophobia as "prejudice against Muslims". The term, which is known to date back to 1991, became prominent in the wake of the September 11, 2001 attacks.

The concept of Islamophobia has attracted some controversy, and a number of writers, journalists, and intellectuals including Salman Rushdie, author of The Satanic Verses, have criticized it for allegedly confusing the criticism of Islam as a religion with stigmatisation of its believers. Others such as Jonathan Steele, Tariq Ali and Tariq Ramadan do not reject the concept, but differ to how it is manifest, and how "Islamophobia" can be stopped.


History and use of the term

Dr Abduljalil Sajid (Brighton Islamic Mission, member of the Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia and chair of the Muslim Council for Religious and Racial Harmony UK) defined the term 'Islamophobia', a word that was first used in print in 1991, by quoting extracts from the 1997 Runnymede Trust report, which provided the first official definition of the term as unfounded hostility towards Islam, and therefore fear or dislike of all or most Muslims.

It is formed with the Greek suffix -phobia 'fear of -' in a similar way to xenophobia or homophobia. It reflects the influence of such 1990s movements as multiculturalism and identity politics. During this period, some sociologists and cultural analysts argued that there was a shift in forms of prejudice from ones based on race to ones based on notions of cultural superiority and otherness.

Actions and beliefs typically described as Islamophobic range from systematic discrimination to physical assault. Hate crimes against Muslims have been categorized as "Islamophobic", as have inflammatory hate speech, and even criticism. The UK Minister Peter Hain's statement that Britain's Muslim community is "isolationist" was met with accusations of Islamophobia, and Italian prime minister Silvio Berlusconi's statement that Western civilization is 'superior' to Islam was similarly alleged to be Islamophobic. In Germany, the state of Baden-Württemberg has proposed regulations that require citizenship applicants from the member states of the Organization of the Islamic Conference to answer questions about their attitudes on homosexuality, domestic violence and other religious issues. .

Clothing has become a flashpoint of Islamophobia. France, which has a strong secular tradition separating church from State, was accused of Islamophobia when the law on secularity and conspicuous religious symbols in schools was passed, which bans the wearing of conspicuous religious symbols in public schools. The policy extends to Muslim headscarves, large Christian crosses, Jewish skullcaps, and other visible signs of religion, although small religious symbols (such as the Qur'an and Crucifixes) are still allowed. The Dutch parliament has voted in favour of a proposal to ban the burqa in public, which has led to similar accusations.

Use in public discourse

The term most often appears in discourse on the condition of immigrant Muslims living as minorities in the United States, Europe, and Australia, although it has also been used in recent years in countries such as India, and occasionally in connection with non-immigrant Muslim communities or individuals. In the most prominent cases, however, experiences of immigrant communities of unemployment, rejection, alienation, and violence have allegedly combined with Islamophobia to make integration difficult. Maleiha Malik has argued that this has led, in the United Kingdom, to Muslim communities suffering higher levels of unemployment, poor housing, poor health, and higher levels of racially motivated violence than other communities.

Since September 11, 2001, given the strong association between Arabs and the religion of Islam, Islamophobia is sometimes expressed as a form of anti-Arab racism. In the UK, Chris Allen has argued that whilst 'anti-Arab' sentiment is quite rare, Islamophobia has been to some degree transitory: a form of 'new' or 'cultural' racism that has seen the markers of discrimination shift from those of race to those of religion. In Germany, the majority of victims have not been Arabs, but rather are from Turkey, perhaps the most secular Islamic country. Anti-Muslim bias has also occasionally been expressed in violent attacks on Sikhs who were mistaken for Muslims on account of their distinctive turbans.

It has been argued that Islamophobia also exists in India. These claims are based upon a definition of Islamophobia that is more associated with communal politics in India, although accusations of the denigration of Islamic culture and history are also present. Karen Armstrong wrote in the Guardian newspaper that Islamophobia is the modern apparation of anti-Muslim prejudice and discrimination that dates as far back as the crusades.

Secretary-General Kofi Annan told a December 7, 2004 UN conference on the emergence of Islamophobia that " the world is compelled to coin a new term to take account of increasingly widespread bigotry — that it is a sad and troubling development. Such is the case with 'Islamophobia'."

Jeremy Seabrook, Dr. Anya Rudiger and the Forum Against Islamophobia & Racism have written that the effects of Islamophobia range from individual hatred to widespread discrimination or persecution.

In 2005 the Guardian, a British newspaper, commissioned an ICM poll which indicated an increase in Islamophobic incidents, especially after the July 7 Bombings. Another survey on Muslims, this by the Open Society Institute, found that of those polled 32% believed they had suffered religious descrimination at airports, and 80% said they had experienced Islamophobia.

Characterizations

Stephen Schwartz

American journalist and Muslim convert Stephen Schwartz believes that Islamophobia consists of the following:

  • attacking the entire religion of Islam as a problem for the world;
  • condemning all of Islam and its history as extremist;
  • denying the active existence, in the contemporary world, of a moderate Muslim majority;
  • insisting that Muslims accede to the demands of non-Muslims for theological changes in their religion;
  • treating all conflicts involving Muslims as the fault of Muslims themselves; and
  • inciting war against Islam as a whole.

Schwartz suggests that Islamophobia, so defined, actually exists, though individuals are often accused of it without justification.

Runnymede Trust

File:Islamophobia graph.png
This graph from the Runnymede Trust tries to visually summarize all aspects of Islamophobia.

In the United Kingdom, the term “Islamophobia” was not used in government policy until 1997, when the UK race relations think tank Runnymede Trust published the report Islamophobia: A Challenge For Us All. In a section entitled The Nature of Islamophobia, the report itemizes eight features that Runnymede attributed to Islamophobia:

  1. Islam is seen as a monolithic bloc, static and unresponsive to change.
  2. Islam is seen as separate and “other”. It does not have values in common with other cultures, is not affected by them and does not influence them.
  3. Islam is seen as inferior to the West. It is seen as barbaric, irrational, primitive, and sexist.
  4. Islam is seen as violent, aggressive, threatening, supportive of terrorism, and engaged in a Clash of Civilizations.
  5. Islam is seen as a political ideology, used for political or military advantage.
  6. Criticisms made of 'the West' by Islam are rejected out of hand.
  7. Hostility towards Islam is used to justify discriminatory practices towards Muslims and exclusion of Muslims from mainstream society.
  8. Anti-Muslim hostility is seen as natural and normal.

A critic of the Runnymede definition, British columnist Josie Appleton, criticized the definition given by the Runnymede Trust thusly:

This Runnymede report talked about a rising 'anti-Muslim prejudice' that needed addressing in policy. But the section titled 'The nature of Islamophobia' suggests a very broad notion of prejudice — examples of Islamophobia included people seeing Islam as inferior to the West, rather than just distinctively different; seeing Islam as monolithic and static, rather than diverse and progressive; seeing Islam as an enemy, rather than a partner to cooperate with (7). This also seemed to be founded on an over-sensitivity, an attempt to stem any kind of criticism of Islam. Rather than engage Muslims in debate, non-Muslims are supposed to tiptoe around them, for fear of causing offence. Since 11 September we have seen how this attitude can stifle discussion.

UK researcher Chris Allen has not rejected the concept of Islamophobia but has criticised the primary theory, concept and definition of Islamophobia—that of the Runnymede Trust—as naïve and over‐simplified.

The Runnymede Trust issued a report in 2004 which said that Islamophobia had become institutional in many Public bodies.

FAIR - Forum against Islamophobia and Racism

The UK based Forum against Islamophobia and Racism defines Islamophobia on its Website. It says:
"Islamophobia is the fear, hatred or hostility directed towards Islam and Muslims. Islamophobia affects all aspects of Muslim life and can be expressed in several ways, including:

  • attacks, abuse and violence against Muslims
  • attacks on mosques, Islamic centres and Muslim cemeteries
  • discrimination in education, employment, housing, and delivery of goods and services
  • lack of provisions and respect for Muslims in public institutions."

Council of Europe

The Council of Europe defines Islamophobia as "the fear of or prejudiced viewpoint towards Islam, Muslims and matters pertaining to them".

Roger Hardy, BBC

Roger Hardy, the BBCs Islamic affairs analyst, defines Islamophobia as "fear and hatred of Islam and Muslims".

EUMC's "Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001"

The largest monitoring project ever to be commissioned into "Islamophobia" was undertaken following 9/11 by the European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC).

From a total of 75 reports – 15 from each EU member nation - a synthesis report was published in May 2002. Entitled 'Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001' it was co-authored by Chris Allen and Jorgen S. Nielsen at the University of Birmingham, England.

The report highlighted the regularity with which ordinary Muslims became targets for abusive and sometimes violent retaliatory attacks, all of which were seemingly becoming more extreme and accepted.

According to the report, despite localised differences within each member nation, the recurrence of attacks at street level upon recognisable and visible traits of Islam and Muslims was the report's most significant finding. These attacks took such form as the following: verbal abuse indiscriminately blaming all Muslims for terrorist attacks; women having their hijab torn from their heads; male and female Muslims being spat at; children being called 'Usama' as a term of insult and derision; and random assaults, which on one occasion, left a victim paralysed and others hospitalised.

The representation of Muslims in the media was also noted. Whilst some media initially attempted to differentiate Muslims, this was not always the norm. Inherent negativity, stereotypical images, fantastical representations and grossly exaggerated caricatures were all readily identifiable, drawing upon pre-9/11 established norms to locate further justification and resonance within the media’s audiences.

Similar concerns about the role of politicians and other opinion leaders were also raised. Within the mainstream of political activity, some political leaders made immediate verbal statements stressing the need to differentiate between 'Muslims' and 'terrorists'. In Portugal however, political leaders remained silent. In some other countries, mainstream political leaders were much more vocal and emotionally charged as regards anti-Muslim rhetoric, with both Italy and Denmark being earmarked in the report.

The report concluded that, 'a greater receptivity towards anti-Muslim and other xenophobic ideas and sentiments has, and may well continue, to become more tolerated' .

Examples of usage in public discourse

Criticisms of the concept and usage of the term

Some critics of the term have argued that it has been used as an attempt to police or censor opinion by characterizing any criticism of Islam or Muslims as pathological and irrational. Some of these critics cite the case of the British liberal feminist journalist Polly Toynbee, who was nominated for the title of "Most Islamophobic Media Personality of the Year" at the Annual Islamophobia Awards overseen by the Islamic Human Rights Commission in May 2003. The nomination was based on her comments in an article she had written for the London-based liberal newspaper The Guardian:

Religious politics scar India, Kashmir, Northern Ireland, Sri Lanka, Sudan ... the list of countries wrecked by religion is long. But the present danger is caused by Islamist theocracy ... There is no point in pretending it is not so. Wherever Islam either is the government or bears down upon the government, it imposes harsh regimes that deny the most basic human rights.

Toynbee has rejected the label of "Islamophobe" and argued that her comments must be judged on their truth or falsity, not on the offence they might give to most members of the Muslim community.

Civil-rights activist Bahram Soroush views the term Islamophobia as a form of "Intellectual blackmail", a means of avoiding legitimate criticism of Islam by "scaremongering".

Kenan Malik, a British science writer, while admitting that "there is clearly ignorance and fear of Islam in this country. Muslims do get harassed and attacked because of their faith", has made several points in rejecting the widespread existence of Islamophobia in his essay The Islamophobia Myth:

  • Caution is needed in attributing Islamophobia as the base cause of any event.
  • It is not sufficient that a Muslim is a victim of crime.
  • The accusation of Islamophobia can be used as a mechanism to stifle debate and criticism of the cultural practices of Muslim societies.
  • Finally, anti-social behaviour and deliquency may be the cause of any of the events cited as being islamophobic attacks.

Malik's perceptions have been challenged by Inayat Bunglawala, of the Muslim Council of Britain, who, in a letter to the Guardian, highlights instances of apparent Islamophobia which Malik has omitted. To illustrate this point, he mentions a BBC survey which he claims found that job applicants with traditional English names were more likely to be granted an interview than applicants with identical qualifications and work experience, but with Muslim sounding names.

Wolfram Richter, professor of economics in the Dortmund University believes that what is seen as Islamophobia is essentially just another form of racism, and believes the next Holocaust will be against Muslims.

On December 7, 2004 at a U.N. sponsored seminar entitled "Confronting Islamophobia: Education for Tolerance and Understanding”, Ahmed Kamal Aboulmagd Ph.D., a former member of the Government of Egypt, disputed the neologism and described the term as "derogatory".

The Dutch philosopher and criminal law expert Afshin Ellian, criticised the concept in February 2006 in a piece entitled Stop Capitulating to Threats. He claimed that "Free speech is in danger of being increasingly restricted by invoking “Islamophobia” and “racism”. And some intellectuals have already capitulated." Citing an example of a play cancelled and of a Jornalist who resigned her post because of alleged threats. He asks "What has happened to civil courage? Why do we hear nothing from the publishers, artists, media and colleagues of people who have capitulated about the consequences of this voluntary capitulation?"

Writing in the New Humanist, University of London philosopher Piers Benn suggests that people who "fear the rise of Islamophobia" foster an environment "not intellectually or morally healthy", to the point that “Islamophobia-phobia” can "denounce critical scrutiny of Islam as somehow impolite, or ignorant of the religion’s true nature", encouraging "sentimental pretence that all claims to religious truth are somehow ‘equal’, or that critical scrutiny of Islam (or any belief system) is ignorant, prejudiced, or ‘phobic’". ``

The New Criterion editor Roger Kimball agrees with Benn's depiction of Islamophobia becoming powerful enough to itself trigger fear. He claims that the word “Islamophobia” is a "misnomer" as "A phobia describes an irrational fear, and it is axiomatic that fearing the effects of radical Islam is not irrational, but on the contrary very well-founded indeed, so that if you want to speak of a legitimate phobia—it’s a phobia I experience frequently—we should speak instead of Islamophobia-phobia, the fear of and revulsion towards Islamophobia."

This is a view shared by the National Secular Society who believe that "There is little evidence of any wave of popular Islamophobia. But there is plenty to suggest that some in high places are suffering from an exaggerated fear of an anti-Muslim backlash, viewing the public as a pogrom waiting to happen."

Efforts against Islamophobia

Globally there have been a series of efforts against islamophobia, some of these efforts are detailed below.

  • In 2006 the Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC) set up an observatory on Islamophobia which will monitor and document all anti-Islamic activities around the world.
  • During the ascession talks regarding Turkeys posible entry to the EU, then Prime Minister of Holland, Jan Peter Balkenende, said Islamophobia must not affect the possibility of Turkey's entry to the European Union.
  • 50,000 people signed a petition urging the President of France, Jacques Chirac to curb the growing hatred and discrimination towards Muslims in France.
  • In 1992 a book named The Downfall of the Netherlands was banned and its Pakistani born author fined a sum of 2000 guilders for inciting hatred.
  • In the UK a number of methods aimed at curbing Islamophobia have been set up. In Tower Hamlets, a densely populated area with a large Muslim community, a crime reporting scheme called "Islamophobia - Don't Suffer in Silence" has been set up which police hope will raise awareness of Islamophobia and help them to understand the extent of the problem. The British National Union of Teachers (NUT) has issued guidance to teachers in the union advising that teachers have to "Challenge Islamophobia", and that they have a "crucial role" to play in helping to "dispel myths about Muslim communities".
  • Following a controversial demonstration organized by the Al Ghurabaa organization in response to the Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy, the Muslim Association of Britain organized a peaceful rally in Trafalgar Square attended by nearly four thousand people where organizers made available placards and T-shirts bearing the rally's official slogan, the phrase, "United against Islamophobia, united against incitement". A similar themed march, a week later, drew around ten thousand people to the same place .
  • Following the July 7 bombings, the British government set up a number of initiatives aimed at combatting Islamophobia, including the "National Forum against extremism and Islamophobia". There was also plans by the British government to ban incitement to "religious hatred", however, this failed to get through the House of Commons.
  • The Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, said that the Media bore some responsibility for the apparent rise in Islamophobia, and said that a "rising tide of Islamophobia" in the media must be challenged. He compared the reporting of Muslims in contemporary Britain to the way the flight of Jews from Russia had been covered 100 years ago.
  • In 2006 the Catholic Mission Austria and the Islamic Demonination Austria created a platform called Christians and Muslims, which works against stereotypes and hostility and aims to increase tolerance and respect. As of July 25, 2006 the platform has 1452 supporters.
  • In 1991 the Islamic Culture Foundation (FUNCI) organised, in collaboration with UNESCO and the Institut du Monde Arabe of Paris, an International Conference about the Contribution of Islamic Civilization in European Culture. In March 13 2003 they created a Manifesto against Islamophobia.
  • The Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan issued a call in 1999 to world leaders to combat Islamophobia. Abdel-Elah Khatib, the Jordanian foreign minister said "The international community must consider how to confront this phenomenon of Islamophobia in order to prevent its proliferation".

References to acts attributed to Islamophobia

References to views labeled as Islamophobic

General references in connection to Islamophobia

  • While in Kazakhstan, the former Pontiff, Pope John Paul II, prayed for "both Christian and Muslims to raise an intense prayer to the one almighty God", and begged "God to keep the world in peace". He won praise from the President of Kazakhstan, Nursultan Nazarbayev, for "protecting the world from Islamophobia".
  • In March 2005, Queen Noor of Jordan, while on the BBC television programme "Breakfast with Frost", said, "What grieves me today, truly, is the fact that not only in the United States but also in Europe we've seen the rise, over the last few years, of Islamophobia" adding, "Muslim populations and the Muslim world has been increasingly, not decreasingly, viewed as a menace, as alien, as, perhaps, incompatible with Western societies and values. And I passionately believe that that is not true and that we have a great deal of work to do there.".

See also

References

  1. Word Net search for Islamophobia - Princeton University
  2. Islamaphobia: Can we stop the backlash? BBC - Friday, 21 September, 2001
  3. UK 'Islamophobia' rises after 11 September BBC - Thursday, 29 August, 2002
  4. Islamophobia 'explosion' in UK BBC - Friday, 24 May, 2002
  5. Pledge to wipe out Islamophobia BBC - Saturday, 29 September, 2001
  6. MANIFESTO: Together facing the new totalitarianism, BBC News, March 1, 2006
  7. The Media, Islamophobia and the war on terror.
  8. This is the real outrage Tariq Ali - 13 February 2006
  9. Tariq Ramadan by Ehsan Masood - Prospect Magazine - July 2006.
  10. Anti-Semitism and Islamophobia: two sides of the same coin?, Wyndham Place Charlemagne Trust Discussion meeting, April 7, 2005
  11. Religion as a fig leaf for racism, Jeremy Seabrook, The Guardian, 23 July 2004
  12. Discrimination and Legislation - Response of Dr. Anya Rudiger from Discrimination and Legislation session of Muslims in Europe post 9/11 conference, 2003-04-26, St Antony's College, Oxford
  13. ^ Who's afraid of Islamophobia?, Spiked, July 2, 2002
  14. Failing the tolerance test, Expatica, January 11, 2006
  15. Template:De icon Streit um "Gesinnungstests" in Baden-Württemberg, Deutsche Welle, January 6, 2006
  16. Template:De icon Und wie deutsch sind Sie?, Spiegel Online, March 15, 2006
  17. Template:De icon Fragen an einbürgerungswillige Muslime in Baden-Württemberg, Die Welt, January 4, 2006
  18. France to Ban Pupils' Religious Dress, YaleGlobal, December 12, 2003
  19. Dutch MPs to decide on burqa ban, BBC News, January 16, 2006
  20. Islam and Muslims in Europe, Tariq Ramadan, Equal Voices, issue 10, published by European Monitoring Centre on Racism and Xenophobia (EUMC)
  21. Discrimination and Legislation from Muslims in Europe post 9/11 conference, 2003-04-26, St Antony's College, Oxford
  22. The next holocaust, New Statesman, December 5, 2005
  23. Vigilance goes too far Newsmax - 16th May 2006
  24. Trapped in the ruins, William Dalrymple, The Guardian, 2004-03-20, verified 2005-01-29
  25. Root out this sinister cultural flaw Karen Armstrong - The Guardian - Wednesday April 6, 2005
  26. World: UN Forum Explores Ways To Fight 'Islamophobia', Radio Free Europe, December 10, 2004
  27. Religion as a fig leaf for racism, Jeremy Seabrook, The Guardian, 23 July 2004
  28. Discrimination and Legislation - Response of Dr. Anya Rudiger from Discrimination and Legislation session of Muslims in Europe post 9/11 conference, 2003-04-26, St Antony's College, Oxford
  29. Forum Against Islamophobia & Racism (FAIR)
  30. Islamophobia: a challenge for us all Template:PDFlink
  31. Two-thirds of Muslims consider leaving UK The Guardian - Tuesday July 26, 2005
  32. ICM-Guardian poll POll of Muslims in the UK. The Guardian - Tuesday July 26, 2005
  33. Spiraling Islamophobia Alienating British Muslims: Report Islam Online - Nov 22 2004
  34. ... And why we urgently need new answers Sarfraz Manzoor - The Guardian - November 30, 2004
  35. Stephen Schwartz (2005-04-28). "The "Islamophobes" That Aren't". Tech Central Station. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  36. Islamophobia: A Challenge for Us All Runnymede Trust, 1997
  37. Islamophobia pervades UK - report BBC - Wednesday, 2 June, 2004
  38. Defining Islamophobia-PDF Forum against Islamophobia and Racism
  39. Council Of Europe synopsis for book entitled "Islamophobia and its consequences on Young People"
  40. BBC - "Healing the cartoon row wounds"
  41. ^ Summary report on Islamophobia in the EU after 11 September 2001, EUMC, May, 2002
  42. Most Islamophobic Media Personality of the Year, Islamic Human Right Commission, May 31, 2003
  43. Last chance to speak out The Guardian, by Polly Toynbee.
  44. TV International English Interview with Bahram Soroush, June 7, 2004
  45. What hate? Kenan Malik -The Guardian - Friday January 7, 2005
  46. The Islamophobia Myth, Kenan Malik, February 2005
  47. Hate against Muslims Inayat Bunglawala - Letter to the Guardian - Tuesday January 11, 2005
  48. The next holocaust, New Statesman, December 5, 2005
  49. Islamophobia...A Term Criticized in UN Seminar, Islam Online, December 8, 2005
  50. Transcript of UN seminar "Confronting Islamophobia: Education for Tolerance and Understanding", UN Press Release, December 7, 2004
  51. ^ Webcast of UN seminar "Confronting Islamophobia: Education for Tolerance and Understanding", UN Press Release, December 7, 2004
  52. Stop Capitulating to Threats, Afshin Ellian, February 2006
  53. On Islamophobia-phobia, Piers Benn
  54. After the suicide of the West, Roger Kimball, January 2006
  55. NSS Newsline, Terry Sanderson, January 2005
  56. OIC set up observatory on Islamophobia IslamOnline, May 9, 2006
  57. Islam 'must not cloud Turkey bid' BBC -Wednesday, 21 July, 2004
  58. FRANCE: 50,000 SIGN UP AGAINST ISLAMOPHOBIA - ADN Kronos - June 2, 2006
  59. Scheme to fight faith hate crimes BBC - Wednesday, 17 November, 2004
  60. Teaching tolerance amid tension BBC - Friday, 15 July, 2005
  61. Prayer mats lined the pavements BBC - Saturday, 11 February 2006
  62. Muslims fly flag for peaceful protest against cartoons The Guardian - Sunday February 12, 2006
  63. Muslims march in cartoons protest BBC - Saturday, 18 February 2006
  64. Call for Muslim scholars to tour BBC - Thursday, 10 November 2005
  65. Racial and Religious Hatred Bill BBC - Friday, 27 January 2006
  66. Religious hatred: How MPs voted BBC - Wednesday, 1 February 2006
  67. Muslim media image 'must change' BBC - Wednesday, 31 August 2005
  68. Jordan: Stop attacking Islam BBC - Tuesday, September 21, 1999
  69. Racial unrest offers opportunity for discussion, Australian Broadcasting Corporation, December 20, 2005
  70. The Rise of Islamophobia in ‘White Australia’, Global Research, December 14, 2005
  71. Vandals target Paris mosque The Guardian - Tuesday February 22, 2005
  72. Mosque attacked in Australia, BBC News, September 14, 2001
  73. Annual Report 2001-02 for the Anti-Discrimination Commission Queensland, Anti-Discrimination Commission Queensland, October 30, 2002
  74. Burning of sanctuary stokes fears of Islamophobia in Spain, The Guardian, April 18, 2006
  75. Purcell, city leaders reach out to Muslims, The Tennessean, August 2, 2005
  76. Burning Of Koran Investigated As Hate Crime, NewsChannel 5 Network, June 23, 2005
  77. Muslim groups want action from U of T, University of Toronto News, March 16, 2006
  78. Racism and racial discrimination on rise around the world, UN expert warns, UN NEWS CENTRE, March 7, 2006
  79. French parliament approves hijab ban, Al Jazeera, February 10, 2004
  80. Islamophobia in Prisons stretches far beyond Belmarsh, Islamic Human Rights Commission, March 8, 2006
  81. EU reports post-Sept. 11 racism CNN - May 24, 2002
  82. Appalling Desecration of Muslim Graves in Plumstead Mulsim Council of Britan - 19 Mar 2004
  83. MAB Horrified at Forest Gate Security Blunder, The Muslim Association of Britain, June 7, 2006
  84. Muslims call on Police chief to resign over Forest Gate terror raid, RINF, June 11, 2006
  85. Ann Coulter says Muslims 'Smell Bad', Council on American-Islamic Relations, March 10, 2004
  86. Rising Islamophobia makes Birmingham fertile ground for BNP, The Independent, April 8, 2006
  87. Bible of the Muslim haters, The Guardian, June 11, 2002
  88. Institutionalised Hatred and Instigating Murder, Z Magazine, December 20, 2005
  89. Annual Islamophobia Awards, 2003
  90. Winners of Islamophobia Awards 2004 announced, Islamic Human Rights Commission, June 26, 2004
  91. Winners of the Islamophobia Awards 2005, Islamic Human Rights Commission, December 17, 2005
  92. Thought crime on campus, Creative Loafing Atlanta, February 10, 2002
  93. Filip Dewinter interview, Jewish Week, December 9, 2006
  94. Pope prays for peace CNN - September 23, 2001
  95. Jordan's Queen BBC Transcript of Breakfast with Frost. Sunday, 20 March.

External links

Links criticising the concept of Islamophobia

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