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Within Indian religions, brahmacharya (/ˌbrɑːməˈtʃɑːrjə/; Devanagari: ब्रह्मचर्य; literally "going after" or "following" Brahman") is living a life of chastity for the purpose of attaining spiritual liberation (moksha). In traditional Hindu civilization Brahmacharya is the first of four Ashrama (age-based stages) of a human life, with Grihastha (householder), Vanaprastha (forest dweller) and Sannyasa (renunciation) being the other three Asramas. The brahmacharya (bachelor student) stage of one's life, up to about 20 years of age, was focused on education and included the practice of celibacy.
Within the context of Yogic culture (whether Hindu, Jain or Buddhist) brahmacharya designates a lifestyle characterized by sexual abstinence. These characteristics mirror Western notions of the religious life as practiced in monastic settings.
Etymology
The word brahmacharya stems from two Sanskrit roots:
- Brahma (ब्रह्म, shortened from Brahman), means "the one self-existent Spirit, the Absolute Reality, Universal Self, Personal God, the sacred knowledge".
- charya (चर्य), which means "occupation with, engaging, proceeding , behaviour, conduct, to follow, going after". This is often translated as activity, mode of behaviour, a "virtuous" way of life.
So the word brahmacharya literally means a lifestyle adopted to seek and understand Brahman – the Ultimate Reality. It is commonly translated to mean celibacy for those unmarried, and fidelity to one's partner when married. In ancient and medieval era Indian texts, the term brahmacharya is a concept with more complex meaning. Brahmacharya embodies in its meaning an overall lifestyle that helps the pursuit of sacred knowledge and spiritual liberation. It is a means, not an end, and usually includes cleanliness, ahimsa, simple living, studies, meditation, voluntary restraints on certain diet, intoxicants and behaviors (including sexual behavior).
History
The concept and practice of brahmacarya can be found among the older strata of the mukhya upanishads. The Upanishads record an important phase in the history of Indian religion when sages began to de-emphasize the importance of external sacrifice as constituting the essence of dharmic virtue in favour of an interior sacrifice constituted by the yogic discipline enjoined upon students by brahman-realized teachers (jivan-mukta) ie Gurus.
In the Chandogya Upanishad (VIII;5) we read:
- Now what people call sacrifice (yajña) is really brahmacarya, for only by means of brahmacarya does the knower attain that world (ie Brahman). And what people call Ishta (worship) is really brahmacarya, for only worshipping by means of brahmacarya does one attain the Atman (ie the liberated Self).
According to Geoffrey Samuel this new yoga-oriented culture dedicated towards brahman realization (moksha) via means of self-discipline "developed in the same ascetic circles as the early sramana movements (Buddhists, Jainas and Ajivikas), probably in and around the sixth and fifth centuries BCE." Thus we find among the five great vows (mahavrata) of Mahavira and the dhamma-vinaya of Gautama Buddha (both contemporaries) the requirement of brahmacarya in their paths of liberation. In both cases brahmacarya indicates not merely abstaining from sexual intercourse but refraining from all forms of intentional sexual activity.
Brahmacharya as Asrama stage of life
Main article: Ashrama (stage)Historically brahmacarya referred to a stage of life (asrama) within the Vedic ashram system. Ancient Hindu culture divided the human lifespan into four stages: Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sannyasa. Brahamacharya asrama occupied the first 20-25 years of life roughly corresponding to adolescence. Upon the child's Upanayanam, the young person would begin a life of study in the Gurukula (the household of the Guru) dedicated to learning all aspects of dharma that is the "principles righteous living". Dharma comprised personal responsibilities towards himself, family, society, humanity and God which included the environment, earth and nature. This educational period started when the child was five to eight years old and lasted until the age of 14 to 20 years. During this stage of life, the traditional vedic sciences and various sastras were studied along with the religious texts contained within the Vedas and Upanishads. This stage of life was characterized by the practice of celibacy.
Naradaparivrajaka Upanishad suggests that Brahmacharya (student) stage of life should extend from the age a child is ready to receive teachings from a guru, and continue for a period of twelve years.
The graduation from Brahmacharya stage of life was marked by the Samavartanam ceremony. The graduate was then ready to either start Grihastha (householder) stage of life, or wait, or pursue a life of Sannyasa and solitude like Rishis in forest. Vyasa in Chapter 234 of Shanti Parva in the Mahabharata praises Brahmacharya as an important stage of life necessary for learning, then adds Grihastha stage as the root of society and important to an individual's success.
Brahmacharya as a virtue
Brahmacharya is one of five Yamas in Yoga, for example as declared in verse 2.30 of Patanjali's Yoga Sutras. It is a form of self-restraint virtue and recommended observance depending on an individual's context. For a married practitioner it means marital fidelity (not cheating on one's partner); for a single person it means celibacy. Sandilya Upanishad includes Brahmacharya as one of ten Yamas in Chapter 1, then defines it as "refraining from sexual intercourse in all places and in all states in mind, speech or body".
Patanjali in verse 2.38 states the virtue of Brahmacharya leads to the profit of Virya (वीर्य). This Sanskrit word, Virya, has been variously translated as virility, and by Vyasa as strength and capacity. Vyasa explains that this virtue advances other good qualities. Other ancient and medieval era texts of Hinduism describe the fruits of this virtue differently. For example, Pada Chandrika, Raja Marttanda, Sutrartha Bodhini, Mani Prabha and Yoga Sudhakara each state that Brahmacharya must be understood as the voluntary restraint of power. Chandogya Upanishad in verses of chapter 8.5 extols Brahmacharya as a sacrament and sacrifice, that once perfected, leads to realization of Self, and thereafter becomes the habit of experiencing the soul in others and everything. Tattva Vaisharadi and Yoga Sarasangraha state Brahmacharya leads to increase in jñana-shakti (power of knowledge) and kriya-shakti (power of action).
The Epic Mahabharata, in Book Five Udyoga Parva (the Book of Effort), describes the objective of Brahmacharya as the knowledge of Brahman. The virtue of Brahmacharya leads one to union with the Supreme Soul, asserts the Epic in Chapter 43. It embodies the practice of self-restraint, the ability to overcome desire in order to learn, discover truths (in Vedas and Upanishads), understand reality, pay attention in thought, word and deed to the guru (teacher). The practice of studying and learning skills, states the Epic, requires the "aid of time", personal effort and abilities, as well as discussion and practice, all of which the virtue of Brahmacharya helps. A Brahmacharya, states the Mahabharata, should do useful work, and the earnings he so obtained be given away as the dakshina (fee, gift of thanks) to the guru. The Epic declares that Brahmacharya is one of twelve virtues, an essential part of Angas in Yoga, and is the path of perfecting perseverance and pursuit of Knowledge.
In Indian traditions, a Brahmachari is a male and brahmacharini a female.
Brahmacharya among Brahma Kumaris
Among Brahma Kumaris and Prajapita Brahma Kumaris, Brahmacarya is practised by married couples and householders too, as a way of formalizing sexual behavior into a conscious, co-creative practice rather than merely an unconscious habit.
Brahmacharya among Sramanic traditions
Among the sramanic traditions (Buddhism, Jainism, Ājīvika and Carvaka schools of Hinduism), Brahmacharya is the term used for the practice of self-imposed celibacy that is generally considered a prerequisite for spiritual practice. These characteristics correspond to Western notions of the religious life as practised in monastic settings. The Yogin who is firmly grounded in Brahmacharya virtue is stated to gain great vitality.
Brahmacarya is the virtue of chaste living in Jainism. For those Jains who adopt the path of monks, celibacy in action, words and thoughts is expected. For Lay Jains who are married, the virtue of Brahmacarya requires remaining true and sexually faithful to one's chosen partner. For Lay Jains who are unmarried, chaste living requires Jains to avoid sex before marriage.
See also
References
- James Lochtefeld, "Brahmacharya" in The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Hinduism, Vol. 1: A–M, pp. 120, Rosen Publishing. ISBN 0-8239-3179-1
- "Brahmacharya essentially stands for the ideal of chastity" pg 76, The Encyclopedia of Yoga and Tantra, Georg Feuerstein, Shambhala Publications, 2011.
- "The chaste and celibate state of a student of the Veda", pg 62, The Oxford Dictionary of Hinduism, W.J. Johnson, Oxford University Press, 2009
- ^ RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, ISBN 978-8171566655, page 28
- Carl Olson (2007), Celibacy and Religious Traditions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195306323, page 227-233
- DR Pattanaik (1998), The Holy Refusal, MELUS, Vol. 23, No. 2, 113-127
- brahma Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- Not to be confused with Brahmā or Brahmin
- carya Monier Williams Sanskrit Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany
- Arvind Sharma (2013), Gandhi: A Spiritual Biography, Yale University Press, ISBN 978-0300185966, page 134
- ^ Brahmacharyam Pativratyam cha - Celibacy and Fidelity Himalayan Academy, Gutenberg Archives (2006)
- ^ M Khandelwal (2001), Sexual Fluids, Emotions, Morality - Notes on the Gendering of Brahmacharya, in Celibacy, Culture, and Society: The Anthropology of Sexual Abstinence (Editors: Elisa Sobo and Sandra Bell), University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 978-0299171643, pages 157-174
- Joseph Alter (2012), Moral Materialism, Penguin, ISBN 978-0143417415, pages 65-67
- pg 8 The Origins of Yoga and Tantra, Cambridge University Press, 2008
- Manusmriti suggests the Brahmacharya ashrama be about 25 years, one fourth of the normal life of human being he estimates to be 100 years. See: RK Sharma (1999), Indian Society, Institutions and Change, ISBN 978-8171566655, page 28
- Bodhinatha Veylanswami (2007), What Is Hinduism?, Editors of Hinduism Today, Himalayan Academy Publishers, ISBN 978-1934145005, page 372
- Vivekjivandas, Sadhu. Hinduism: An Introduction – Part 2. (Swaminarayan Aksharpith: Ahmedabad, 2010) p. 113. ISBN 978-81-7526-434-2
- Rocher, Ludo. "The Dharmaśāstas". The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism.(Ed.Gavin Flood) (Blackwell Publishing Ltd.: Oxford, 2003) p. 103. ISBN 0-631-21535-2
- Stella Kramrisch (1958), Traditions of the Indian Craftsman, The Journal of American Folklore, Vol. 71, No. 281, Traditional India: Structure and Change (Jul. - Sep., 1958), pp. 224-230
- Samuel Parker (1987), Artistic practice and education in India: A historical overview, Journal of Aesthetic Education, pp 123-141
- Misra, R. N. (2011), Silpis in Ancient India: Beyond their Ascribed Locus in Ancient Society, Social Scientist, Vol. 39, No. 7/8, pp 43-54
- KN Aiyar (Translator), Narada Parivrajaka Upanishad, Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Archives, page 135
- R Pandey (1969), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-Religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments (2nd Ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 81-208-0434-1
- KM Ganguli, Moksha dharma parva Shanti Parva, The Mahabharata, pages 248-261
- Original:अहिंसासत्यास्तेय ब्रह्मचर्यापरिग्रहाः यमाः |
Source:Āgāśe, K. S. (1904). Pātañjalayogasūtrāṇi. Puṇe: Ānandāśrama. p. 102. - KN Aiyar (Translator), Sandilya Upanishad, Thirty Minor Upanishads, University of Toronto Archives, page 173
- Original: ब्रह्मचर्य प्रतिष्ठायां वीर्यलाभः |
Source: Yogasutra 2.35-2.39 (in German) - ^ SV Bharti (2001), Yoga Sutras of Patanjali: With the Exposition of Vyasa, Motilal Banarsidas, ISBN 978-8120818255, Appendix I, pages 536-539
- Chandogya Upanishad Book 8, Chapter 5, Jha (Translator), pages 434-440
- ^ KM Ganguli (Translator), The Mahabharata of Krishna-Dwaipayana Vyasa, p. 150, at Google Books, Udyoga Parva, Chapter 43, pages 150-153
- Hodgkinson, Liz (2002). Peace and Purity: The Story of the Brahma Kumaris a Spiritual Revolution. HCI. pp. 2–29. ISBN 1-55874-962-4.
- Babb, Lawrence A. (1987). Redemptive Encounters: Three Modern Styles in the Hindu Tradition (Comparative Studies in Religion and Society). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-7069-2563-7. "Sexual intercourse is unnecessary for reproduction because the souls that enter the world during the first half of the Cycle are in possession of a special yogic power (yog bal) by which they conceive children"
- Barrett, David V (2001). The New Believers. Cassell & Co. pp. 265. ISBN 0-304-35592-5.
- Shambhala Encyclopedia of Yoga, p. 61
- "Brahmacarya". BBC. Retrieved 28 June 2013.
Further reading
- Swami Narayanananda: The Way to Peace, Power and Long Life. N.U. Yoga Trust, Denmark, 2001 (1st ed. 1945)
- Swami Narayanananda: Brahmacharya, Its Necessity and Practice for Boys and Girls. N.U. Yoga Trust, Denmark, 2001 (1st ed. 1960)
- Elisabeth Haich: Sexual Energy and Yoga. Aurora Press, 1982
- Stuart Sovatsky: "Eros, Consciousness and Kundalini: Tantric Celibacy and the Mysteries of Eros". Inner Traditions, Rochester, VT. (1999)
- Carl Olson, Celibacy and Religious Traditions, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0195306323
External links
- Nakedness, Nonviolence, and Brahmacharya: Gandhi's Experiments in Celibate Sexuality Vinay Lal (2000), Journal of the History of Sexuality, Vol. 9, No. 1/2, pp. 105-136
- Seminal Truth: A Modern Science of Male Celibacy in North India Joseph S. Alter, Medical Anthropology Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 3 (Sep., 1997), pp. 275-298
- Brahmacharyam - Celibacy and Fidelity Himalayan Academy, Gutenberg Archives
- The Role of Celibacy in the Spiritual Life An interview with Swami Chidananda
- Brahmacharya by Swami Sivananda
- The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda Chapters 5, 6 and 7 discuss Vivekananda's views on Brahmacharya